Central America

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Revision as of 22:26, 7 October 2008

Provincias Unidas del Centro de América United Provinces of the Center of America
Flag	Coat of arms
Motto "Dios, Unión y Libertad" (Spanish) "God, Union and Liberty"
Anthem La Granadera
Capital Largest city	San Salvador 13°40′N, 89°10′W Guatemala City
Official languages	Spanish
Demonym	Central American
Government  - President  - Vice-President	Federal republic Óscar Arias Rafael Espada
State religion	Roman Catholic Church
Establishment  - Independence from Spain  - Independence from Mexico  - Constitution adopted	September 15, 1821 July 1, 1823 December 17, 1823
Area  - Total  - Water (%)	423,016 km² 163,362 sq mi 2.52
Population  - 2008 estimate  - Density	37,689,696 89/km² 231/sq mi
GDP (PPP)  - Total  - Per capita	2007 estimate $547 billion $14,500
GDP (nominal)  - Total  - Per capita	2007 estimate $490 billion $13,000
Gini (2006)	56.5 (high)
HDI (2005)	0.816 (high)
Currency	Central American real (CAR)
Time zone - Summer (DST)	CST (UTC -6) not observed (UTC -6)
Internet TLD	.up
Calling code	+500

The United Provinces of the Center of America (Spanish: Provincias Unidas del Centro de América), commonly called Central America (Spanish: Centroamérica or América Central), is an upper-middle income nation in Central America. Bordering Mexico to the north, Belize to the northeast, and the Confederate States of Latin America to the south, it is one of the oldest republics in the Western Hemisphere. Formed by the union of Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua, the nation will celebrate its bicentennial in 2023.

A geographically and culturally diverse nation abundant in resources, flora, and fauna, the United Provinces of Central America enjoys some of the greatest biodiversity in the world - bringing it to the attention of not only scientists, but also tourists, who flock to the country by the millions every year, earning the country much revenue. Also of note is the country's extensive, sometimes tumultuous, geographic activity; volcanic eruptions and earthquakes occur from time to time, with varying severity, from minor tremors to cataclysmic disasters taking thousands of lives (notable examples being the 1931 and 1972 Managua earthquakes).

An intensely socially conservative nation, it is the only country in the world where abortion is illegal without exception - even when the mother's life is in danger. Divorce and homosexuality remain social taboos, and the status of women leaves much to be desired. Though religious freedom is protected by law and the majority of Central Americans are tolerant of other faiths, the Roman Catholic Church remains the official religion, and, as can be surmised, wields a considerable amount of influence.

Though much social, political, and economic progress has been made in the past few decades, especially since the early 1980s, corruption remains a cause of concern and income and land distribution is among the most inequal in the world.

History

Pre-colonial history

In pre-Columbian times, most of modern Central America was part of the Mesoamerican civilization. The Native American societies of Mesoamerica occupied the land ranging from central Mexico in the north to Costa Rica in the south. Most notable among these were the Maya, who had built numerous cities throughout the region, and the Aztecs, who created a vast empire. The pre-Columbian cultures of Panama traded with both Mesoamerica and South America, and can be considered transitional between those two cultural areas.

Colonization

Following Christopher Columbus's discovery of the Americas for Spain, the Spanish sent numerous expeditions to the region, and they began their conquest of Maya lands in the 1520s. In 1540, Spain established the Captaincy General of Guatemala, which extended from southern Mexico to Costa Rica, and thus encompassed most of what is currently known as Central America, with the exception of British Honduras (present-day Belize). This lasted nearly three centuries, until a rebellion (which followed closely on the heels of the Mexican War of Independence) in 1821.

Independence

In 1821 a congress of Central American criollos declared their independence from Spain, effective on 15 September of that year. That date is still marked as the independence day by most Central American nations. The Spanish Captain General, Gabino Gaínza, sympathized with the rebels and it was decided that he should stay on as interim leader until a new government could be formed. Independence was short-lived, for the conservative leaders in Guatemala welcomed annexation by the Mexican Empire of Agustín de Iturbide on 5 January 1822. Central American liberals objected to this, but an army from Mexico under General Vicente Filisola occupied Guatemala City and quelled dissent.

When Mexico became a republic the following year, it acknowledged Central America's right to determine its own destiny. On 1 July 1823, the congress of Central America declared absolute independence from Spain, Mexico, and any other foreign nation, and a republican system of government was established.

Early republic

Early map of the United Provinces.

In 1823 the nation of Central America was formed. It was intended to be a federal republic modeled after the United States of America. The Central American nation consisted of the states of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica.

Central American liberals had high hopes for the United Provinces, which they believed would evolve into a modern, democratic nation, enriched by trade crossing through it between the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans. These aspirations are reflected in the emblems of the federal republic: The flag shows a white band between two blue stripes, representing the land between two oceans. The coat of arms shows five mountains (one for each state) between two oceans, surmounted by a Phrygian cap, the emblem of the French Revolution.

In the late 1830s, the nation nearly dissolved as a result of civil war, which directly resulted from Honduras's attempt to secede on November 5, 1838. A brief but economically disastrous war followed, which ended in 1840 with Honduras's re-integration into the Union.

The remainder of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th were characterized by alternating periods of spectacular economic growth and economic malaise, and general peace but severe political instability; most governments were both notoriously corrupt and short-lived. Two parties — the Conservative Party and the Liberal Party — dominated the political arena. The difference between the two was negligible. Both were staunchly conservative with strong ties to the Roman Catholic Church, and both represented the tiny but extremely powerful oligarchy, which, while numerically small, controlled the vast majority of the country's wealth and owned most of the land. Patronage, nepotism, and political infighting were rife. In concert with developments in Europe, class consciousness and social tensions gradually began to build in Central America.

United States involvement (1909 — 1933)

The early 20th century was characterized by pervasive involvement in Central American politics by the United States. In 1909, the U.S. provided political support to conservative-led forces rebelling against then-President Zelaya. U.S. motives included differences over the proposed Central American Canal and Zelaya's attempts to regulate foreign access to Central American natural resources. On November 18, 1909, U.S. warships were sent to the area after 500 revolutionaries (including two Americans) were executed by order of Zelaya. The U.S. justified the intervention by claiming to protect U.S. lives and property. Zelaya resigned later that year.

In August 1912 the President of Central America, Manuel Estrada Cabrera (who had succeeded Zelaya), requested that the Secretary of War, General Luis Mena, resign for fear that he was leading an insurrection. Mena fled San Salvador with his brother, the Chief of Police of San Salvador, to start an insurrection. When the U.S. Legation asked President Díaz to ensure the safety of American citizens and property during the insurrection he replied that he could not and that "In consequence my Government desires that the Government of the United States guarantee with its forces security for the property of American Citizens in Central America and that it extend its protection to all the inhabitants of the Republic."

U.S. Marines occupied Central America from 1912 to 1933, except for a nine month period beginning in 1925. Estrada ruled the country until 1923. He brought stability to Central America, often at the price of dictatorial rule. He encouraged development of the nation's infrastructure of highways, railroads, and sea ports. The United Fruit Company became an important force in Central America during his presidency. Opposition to his regime slowly grew; by 1920, opposition was widespread. In 1923, he was removed from office by the army, which charged that he was "mentally incompetent." With Estrada's departure went the nation's political stability; between 1923 and 1937, the country had eight Presidents.

Following the evacuation of U.S. Marines, another violent conflict between Liberals and Conservatives took place in 1926, known as the Constitutionalist War, which resulted in a coalition government and the return of U.S. Marines.

From 1927 until 1933, Gen. Augusto C. Sandino led a sustained guerrilla war first against the Conservative regime and subsequently against the U.S. Marines, who withdrew upon the establishment of a new Liberal government. Sandino was the only Central American general to refuse to sign the el tratado del Espino Negro agreement and then headed up to the northern mountains of Las Segovias, where he fought the U.S. Marines for over five years. The revolt finally forced the United States to compromise and leave the country. When the Americans left in 1933, they set up the Guardia Nacional (National Guard), a combined military and police force trained and equipped by the Americans. Anastasio Somoza García was put in charge of the Guardia Nacional. He was one of the three rulers of the country, the others being Sandino and the mostly figurehead President Juan Bautista Sacasa.

After the U.S. Marines withdrew from Nicaragua in January 1933, Sandino and the newly-elected Sacasa government reached an agreement by which he would cease his guerrilla activities in return for amnesty, a grant of land for an agricultural colony, and retention of an armed band of 100 men for a year. But a growing hostility between Sandino and Somoza led Somoza to order the assassination of Sandino. Fearing future armed opposition from Sandino, Somoza invited him to a meeting in Managua, where Sandino was assassinated on February 21, 1934 by the Guardia Nacional.

Somoza dynasty

to be added

Economy

to be added

Politics

Central America is a federal republic with a level of de-centralization surpassed only by Switzerland. Like Switzerland, it is highly democratic, and the Constitution guarantees a great deal of civil liberties. Unlike Switzerland, the Central American government remains dominated by a parochial elite, and corruption and patronage remain widespread. While the government generally honors the Constitution's commitments to personal freedoms, politics remains a game played with loaded dice, in which, regardless of the electoral outcome, the players remain largely the same. Even so, Central Americans are a public-spirited, civic-minded, highly politically active people, and elections are eagerly anticipated occasions and public debate is lively. The country's fairly high living standards, and the large degree of freedom people enjoy in their daily lives, causes most Central Americans to overlook the many inherent flaws in their political system.

Federal government

Legislature

The National Palace.

The legislative branch of Central America is the unicameral Federal Congress (Congreso Federal), whose members are popularly elected on a numerical basis, renewable by halves each year. Its primary function is to adopt federal laws (i.e, draft bills). The Federal Congress convenes in the National Palace (Palacio Nacional).

The Senate

The Central American Senate (Senado) differs from most other senates in that it is not a legislative body. It takes no initiative in the formulation of laws, but instead simply approves or denies bills. It also functions as an advisory body to the executive branch and serves as a "moderator power." The membership of the Senate is popularly elected and renewable by thirds each year.

Executive

Casa Presidencial (Presidential House).

The head of state in Central America is the President (Presidente), who presides over the executive branch. Unlike the President of the United States, who is elected by the Electoral College, the President of Central America is popularly elected; like the President of the U.S., the Central American President's term is four years long. He is eligible for re-election, but his terms must be consecutive. For example, if the incumbent President loses the next election, he may not run again. A President is limited to a maximum of two terms. The President and the Vice-President (Vicepresidente) are elected on the same ticket. The President has very limited powers and cannot veto bills. His main duty is to enforce public order and direct the military of Central America. He also conducts foreign policy in consultation with the Senate, which also proposes lists for the appointment of federal officials. Finally, the President presides over the Senate, but cannot vote except in the event of a tie. The Vice-President mainly serves as a "spare wheel," for the President; in the event that the President dies, resigns, becomes incapacitated, is removed from office, or is otherwise unable to fulfill his duties, the Vice-President does so in his stead. The President's official residence is the Casa Presidencial (English: "Presidential House") in San Salvador. His annual salary is 175,000 reales.

Cabinet

• Minister of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry (Ministro de Agricultura y Ganadería): Rafael Ocón Mora
• Minister of Defense (Ministro de Defensa): Julio Salazar Ramirez
• Minister of Economy, Industry, and Commerce (Ministro de Economía, Industria y Comercio): Rómulo Martínez Hidalgo
• Minister of Foreign Relations (Ministro de Relaciones Exteriores): Roberto de Paula Hernández
• Minister of Finance and Public Credit (Ministro de Hacienda y Crédito Público): Tomás Caldera Guitierrez
• Minister of the Government (Ministro de la Gobernación): Rubén Urtecho Vegas
• Minister of Justice (Ministro de Justicia): Ramón García Guzmán
• Minister of Labor (Ministro del Trabajo): Leonardo Gallardo Ugarte
• Minister of Public Education (Ministro de Educación Pública): César López Sánchez
• Minister of Public Health (Ministro de Salud Pública): José Rafael Espada
• Minister of Public Works (Ministro de Obras Públicas): Amilcar Guerrero Cerezo
• President of the Central Bank ((Presidente del Banco Central)): Francisco Volio Uribe
• Permanent Representative to the United Nations (Representante Permanente ante las Naciones Unidas): Jorge Garnier Núñez

Judiciary

The Supreme Court of Justice.

The Supreme Court of Justice (Suprema Corte de Justicia), the judiciary, differs from most other judicial bodies around the world in that its membership is popularly elected (renewable by thirds every two years). The Supreme Court of Justice functions as a court of last resort, hears cases against the President and other senior officials, and establishes juries and appellate courts. All citizens, without distinction, are subject to the same order of proceedings and trials; in other words, there are no special courts for the military and ecclesiastical jurisdictions.

State governments

The composition of state governments is largely similar to that of the federal government. Each state has a unicameral legislative body, known as Congress (Congreso); a Representative Council (Consejo Representativo), which sanctions or vetoes laws passed by Congress, essentially performing the same function as the Senate does at the federal level); an executive, known as the Chief (Jefe), assisted by a Second Chief (Segundo Jefe); and a judiciary (like its federal counterpart, known as the Supreme Court of Justice). Each of these is popularly elected in the same manner as their counterparts at the federal level, and fulfill the same duties. The Constitution stipulates that whatever powers are not explicitly granted to the federal government, nor denied by it to the states, are reserved for the state and local governments.

List of States

State	Capital	Chief	Population	Area
Costa Rica	San José	Kevin Casas Zamora	4,195,914	51,100 km²
El Salvador	San Salvador	Ana Vilma de Escobar	7,066,403	21,040 km²
Guatemala	Guatemala City	Álvaro Colom	13,002,206	108,890 km²
Honduras	Tegucigalpa	Porfirio Lobo Sosa	7,639,327	112,492 km²
Nicaragua	Managua	Alexis Argüello	5,785,846	129,494 km²

Political parties

For most of its history, the country's politics have revolved around two political parties, the Liberal Party (Partido Liberal) and the Conservative Party (Partido Conservador). Both parties are more groupings of members of the Federal Congress than ideologically based movements dependent on distinct electorates. No particular political philosophy distinguishes one group from another; however, while ideological differences between the two parties are rather negligible, the Liberals vaguely represent labor and social programs and the interests of artisans and workers, while the Conservatives vaguely represent certain business sectors and are more closely affiliated with the Roman Catholic Church.

In reality, members of both parties come from the same social groups: Plantation owners, bureaucrats, professionals, and businessmen. Though the differences between the parties are trivial, factional and personal rivalries among the two parties (and even within them) are intense, and make cooperation difficult. Both parties also tend to be dominated by wealthy politically-connected families: The Liberals by the Somoza family, and the Conservatives by the Figueres family. Patronage is rife within both parties, and contacts and favor rather than ability determine success in party circles.

While third parties are perfectly legal and do exist, the domination of most television stations, newspapers, and other media by the Somoza and Figueres families, coupled with draconian ballot access laws, effectively makes it impossible for other parties to come to power, except at the local and, very rarely, the state level.

More importantly, a constitutional provision, implemented in the 1970s, allows the Liberals and Conservatives to monopolize power. Following widespread riots after the disputed 1968 presidential election, a behind-the-scenes power-sharing compromise was reached. Whichever party won congressional elections would receive 60% of the seats, and the other party, regardless of how much lower its share of the vote was, would receive the remaining 40%. This "compromise" remains a contentious issue in Central America, and many are calling for its repeal, though it remains to be seen whether or not this will happen.

The Constitution proscribes the formation of Marxist political parties or organizations.