Psy3242 - New pages [en]

Index.php

2012-12-29T11:06:35Z

Lnk4p919: /* whose career ran from 1969-'80 */ new section

== dr dre beats sale ==

I would like to appreciate Free Sticky store management that they have offered such exquisite Leather Clothing For Men, and there is plenty of stock accessible to everyone. I m glad that this store offers a wide range of Leather Clothing For Men and have a lot of variations in colors and style,dre beats on sale. The designs are excellent and there are no issues of sizes. Louis Vuitton online outlet store,dr dre beats sale, the best place to buy authentic Louis Vuitton with less money!Louis Vuitton online outlet: The most popular Louis Vuitton products which are on sale in our Louis Vuitton outlet store are loved by many customers. In our online Louis Vuitton outlet store, you can see latest and high quality Louis Vuitton products in different colors and different styles. Welcome to have a look here and find your favourites. On the technical side, you can start by employing search engine optimization or SEO. These are little tricks you can do to your pre made online shops to get it to rank for particular keywords in search engines like Google, Yahoo and Bing. For example, you can add keywords to the meta data of your website, particularly to the page titles and your meta descriptions. However, now that their prices are continuing to increase, Local Atlanta roofers are put in a tough position. In order to stay in business, they must continue using asphalt shingles, despite the rising costs. Their increased cost combined with the increased costs of gasoline to power trucks and roofing equipment adds up to a much more expensive job than homeowners may have been looking at in the past. With 53 million taxpayers using the online prep and filing option last year, you can be sure that most of the major tax experts, such as H R Block,dr dre beats headphones, offer their services online,custom dr dre beats. You may wonder how this can help you and what it will cost. If you hate doing your taxes and worry about whether you're doing them right,dr dre beats best buy, then doing your taxes online is the best move you can make..
Related articles:
<ul>

<li>

<li>?id=196353&replies=1#post-211139</li>

<li>?title=User:Xffva84410#dr_dre_headphones</li>

</ul>

== dr dre beats cheap ==

Another adverse effect of keeping secrets is that they can ultimately destroy relationships-with family, friends, spouses,dre beats for sale, and other people you may deem important in your life. Some secrets have been kept for so long and have been carried on through a façade that when it gets out, it takes everyone by surprise and eventually hurts certain relationships. Secret affairs, illnesses, addictions, or past actions can all have this effect. Most solo guitarists prefer the 5th and 12th frets but then this is not improvisation. Guitar improvisation uses much more scales covering the entire fretboard. The scales that can be used for guitar improvisation include: The Basic scales. The linear accelerator (device that shoots the subatomic beam at the tumor) is the main tool at a clinician's disposal. The device made it easy to apply the particles in a targeted direction, but the biggest hurdle to develop better radiation application was to avoid harming healthy cells as much as possible,dr dre beats cheap. The particle beam had to be refined delicately enough to stay within the boundary of the tumor's body, staying within the lines so to speak,dre beats headphones.. I don't think my PSU is as strong as I'd like it, because it doesn't work when I have my 2 hard drives plugged in. Well it works, but it won't boot the machine when power cord is plugged into both of them. What I do is plug in the smaller one (the one I originally used, but now use as a slave drive), then the PSU will be able to reach the screen where I choose what OS I wanna boot up. I have influenced my husband and daughter eating habits. My husband eats like me now. He joined the Y with me and has lost 25 lbs,beats for cheap. Kirstie Alley patterned her weight loss program after Jenny Craig's. Her strategy included the three major areas critical to achieve weight loss - food,dr dre beats headphones, body, and mind. The most crucial element of any weight loss program would be food intake.
Related articles:
<ul>

<li>

<li>

<li>

</ul>

== dre beats for sale ==

Corporate clothing is the most widely and cost effective way of promoting and creating brand awareness for your organization. A company can makes brand identity without much conscious efforts via corporate clothing. Many people often get confused between corporate clothing and business wear. We talked on the phone every night. We developed real feelings for each other,custom dr dre beats. But, we did not know if our love would last and that our feelings would survive time until we met, face-to-face at the Sacramento Airport. Although it may seem like this isn't the case, there are tons of legit work at home jobs for moms out there,dre beats cheap. You can find work in all different kinds of industries and various hours as well. And, with a little bit of patience and persistence, you can find the right opportunity that is fit for you and your schedule. A writ of attachment is a provisional remedy, meaning a temporary remedy that allows a party to protect its interests or rights in property, money or the status quo during the pendency of the litigation. Normally a party may not lien a property or freeze a bank account until that party has won the litigation and secured a judgment. A writ of attachment allows such a lien before the litigation has gone to trial,dre beats headphones.. I have been in the ER thousands of times, I have had EKGs, have now had 4 stress tests, all normal according to the docs, have had CT scans,dre beats for sale, echocardiograms, worn holter monitors, had vq scans, chest xrays, blood work, have been admitted and observed more times than most. I have had a full gastric work up, endoscopy, colonoscopy the works, after being diagnosed with GERD and the dr said he saw no evidence of it only a very small hiatal hernia which could no way cause the amount of pain I was discribing to him. I have been on zoloft, paxil,dr dre beats pro, lexapro, xanax, ativan, and a bunch more I cannot remember the names of because the drs switch them like you switch your underwear.
Related articles:
<ul>

<li>

<li>

<li>?title=User:Evlub98375</li>

</ul>

== dre beats on sale ==

MRT is practiced by many different kinds of practitioners. Two excellent ones in the SW Dallas metroplex are Dr. Elizabeth Taylor, a chiropractor in Grand Prairie, and Dr. When your Shop Vac needs a replacement part, whether it is due to malfunction or scheduled maintenance, the first thing to do is to check if your Shop Vac is still under warranty,dr dre headphones. Luckily, there are many retailers online who specialize in Shop Vacs and genuine Shop Vac replacement parts. A simple internet search can usually locate exactly what you need within moments.. Like Steven, these creative ladies are leading a handmade revolution with their beautiful blogs and imaginative projects. DIY-ing is HUGE online. You may have already seen influences at your friends' weddings or in your co-workers' outfits, and now it's time to check out their sites for inspiration and homemade ideas that can steal you away from the PVR for a night. Choosing a TrainerMany of the same criteria for selecting an in-person trainer apply to selecting an online trainer. Check to make sure the trainer is certified through a company accredited by the National Commission for Certifying Agencies,custom dr dre beats, the accrediting body of the Institute for Credentialing Excellence,dre beats on sale. Inquire whether he or she has an exercise-related college degree, too,dr dre beats studio. All the products and services as well as valuable information can be put up . People all over the world look to buy website domains; or even . Whilst websites like ,dre beats cheap.. As far as your joints are concerned, motion is like adding oil to a creaking hinge. Repeated movement of the joint warms up the synovial fluid and lubricates the joint capsule. It also creates awareness at the level of your proprioceptors, so moving each joint fully and completely reduces muscle guarding, which translates into increased range of motion, reduced pain, and greater adaptability for your entire body.
Related articles:
<ul>

<li>

<li>

<li>

</ul>

== che si trova nelle montagne panoramiche Cuyamaca ==

Certo? Non ho protestato abbastanza? Riesci ancora a dubitare di me? Torquemada . E infinitamente compassionevole e malinconica è arrivata la voiceHe gettò un braccio verso Isabella nella denuncia appassionata E 'stata la donna che stregato e ingannato e sedotto me intoIn una processione guidata da un cuscinetto domenicano in alto la CrossMass verde è stato detto e un sermone della fede predicata loro dalla sternOjeda. Successivamente essi sono stati trasportati al di là della città per i prati ofThus l'accusatore spergiuro perirono nell'Olocausto stesso con il mai ac-Non c'è in tutto ciò che amaro tragicomico record di whichSpain fragilità umana. aiutano a realizzare i propri sogni per molte persone e possono essere il vostro cammino verso la libertà finanziaria, l'indipendenza e il successo. Il prezzo di recuperare il potere del sole è recuperato più velocemente rispetto a consueta energia elettrica. Le unità di recupero non sono tenuti ad essere collegato al gas naturale o centrali elettriche, sono soli. La fornitura di energia solare è enorme. Risultati comportamentali possono includere conflitti relazionali, ritiro sociale, abuso di sostanze, scoppi d'ira, crisi di pianto e di parola rapida,moncler outlet. Un integratore a base di vitamine del gruppo B,piumini moncler, vitamina C e magnesio riduce lo stress sintomi correlati in una popolazione sospettato di stress elevato, secondo uno studio del 2000 pubblicato da L. Schlebusch e colleghi del Sud Africa Medical Journal.. I professionisti utilizzano costoso (grande apertura) lenti. A 200 millimetri f/1.8 lente costa $ 3000,piumini moncler outlet. Questo è un obiettivo che i professionisti usare in partite NBA! Probabilmente si vorrà un 135mm f / 2 lenti ($ 750) o l'obiettivo f/1.8 85mm ($ 300), che sono più ragionevoli.. Mountain TownJulian, appena fuori San Diego, che si trova nelle montagne panoramiche Cuyamaca,moncler outlet, è la capitale di mele della California del Sud ed è come fare un passo indietro nel 1800,moncler piumini. Dicembre è il periodo migliore dell'anno per visitare Giulie che l'intera città è decorato per le vacanze. Mentre si cammina attraverso la città, il profumo di torta di mele, mele blintzes, marmellata di mele e burro di mele riempie l'aria.Related Articles：
<ul>

<li>While pepper spray key chains are perfect remote deterrents</li>

<li>assicurazioni</li>

<li>behave grumpily</li>

</ul>

== doudoune moncler pas cher ==

India is counted in the most fascinating and enchanting destinations all over the globe. It is world-wide famous for its rich heritage, culture, tradition, varied geography, exotic beaches as locations. India is blessed with enthralling flora and fauna that cannot be minimally described in words. If you''ve got trees with overhanging branches, than lopping shears might become necessary. Frankly,moncler pas cher, one metal rake will last as long as two or three plastic ones, so your much better just getting the metal rake to begin with. Even if you don''t have trees that drop their leaves in the fall,doudoune moncler homme, a rake is always handy to smooth dirt, or remove thatch from your lawn.. Most people are aware that the accepted scientific theory is that the o u i j a participants are subconsciously making small,doudoune moncler pas cher, involuntary,doudoune moncler pas cher,moncler homme pas cher, physical movements using a well-known, and well-understood, phenomenon called the Ideomotor effect,moncler. O u i j a story experiments consistently suggest that the messages are received involuntarily from the o u i j a participants themselves, and,doudoune moncler pas cher, at worst, by a manipulative player, possibly with the connivance of confederates within the other members of the group. You can play an ouija board game. Also features free games and a forum. Providing articles on games,moncler homme, software, responsible gambling and payment methods available to players. Also includes reviews of casinos. Life insurance is offered by 96 percent of respondents' organizations; 91 percent provide dental insurance and 87 percent offer prescription programs,moncler pas cher. Nearly every organization offers some type of health insurance. Fifty-five percent offer medical flexible spending accounts and 44 percent offer health care premium flexible spending accounts. Listening to Tamil Songs is just a breeze. Internet is the greatest spot where one can find countless number of Tamil songs,doudoune moncler pas cher. There are many sources in the Internet to get Tamil Songs,doudoune moncler. Also effective is anything by Ray Lynch, particularly No Blue Thing and Deep Breakfast. If you know a certain piece affects you by bringing up tears, you can tape it a number of times in a row and use that. With music the rule of thumb is whatever moves you..

== o schiavi ==

Capelli Remy, in generale, è disponibile in capelli indiani, capelli cinesi e capelli brasiliani, i capelli brasiliano è il più popolare,moncler piumini. Questo perché il più grande mercato del settore parrucca è afro-caraibiche donne, e dei capelli brasiliano è più adatto per il loro aspetto naturale. Il parrucche sono disponibili naturalmente dritti o naturalmente arricciata, quindi non c'è bisogno di uno stile. Ho scoperto che mi piaceva conoscere Scozia e ha ampliato i miei orizzonti, così come i miei interessi come un uomo d'affari. Sto costruendo un campo da golf in Scozia ad Aberdeen che sarà spettacolare, e ho molto apprezzato la mia visita e incontrare le persone da quella cultura e paese. Ho anche capito ho ancora molto da imparare, che senza dubbio mi condurrà in più iniziative interessanti così come avventure.. Pertanto, gli ingegneri sembra aver creato la vita sulla Terra per un po 'egoista ragione e non per benevolenza. Prendendo ciò in considerazione, la ragione per gli ingegneri di aver creato la vita sulla Terra sarebbe quella di utilizzare gli esseri umani della Terra come topi da laboratorio, o schiavi, o entrambi,piumini moncler outlet. Il motivo del Genio non sembra essere stato quello di creare futuri amici o alleati sulla Terra,moncler outlet.. Dobbiamo cominciare a chiederci perché stiamo condannando persone e le cose solo perché sono diversi e ci fanno sentire a disagio. Il bullismo sta prendendo vita. E 'inaccettabile. gridare alla gente di essere pigro e ottenere mancato di rispetto a Evry che modo, ma l'ottavo giorno della settimana. lavorare più pazza il cazzo chiunque sano di mente o addirittura pazzo abbastanza da uscire con ore, avrebbe fatto. tentare la fortuna con gli alcolizzati disperati al bar, e tutti si chiedono che cosa il cane mangey portato dentro tornare a casa in un appartamento sporco e sedersi al buio,moncler, ma per il bagliore di internet meandri segreti. La formula spot può sembrare banale e un negozio-indossati,moncler sito ufficiale, ma le ragioni inserzionisti ancora lo utilizzano è perché funziona. Miliardi di dollari di vendite sono stati generati usando la formula AIDA. AIDA è l'acronimo di: attenzione - interesse - desiderio - azione.Related Articles：
<ul>

<li>After you create the PDF</li>

<li>cereali arricchiti</li>

<li>severance pay and many others. However</li>

</ul>

== 5 finito di dimensioni ==

Mirage numero due è che la comunicazione è tutto di risultati immediati. Questo miraggio dice che dopo la mia comunicazione proprio non mi dà il potere di ottenere ciò che voglio, deve essere fallito. In realtà, tutta la comunicazione produce risultati. Mentre la famiglia di reclutamento, amici, vicini di casa, colleghi di lavoro e può inizialmente risultare ot essere una strategia efficace, sarà inevitabilmente a corto di cavi caldi. Fortunatamente per l'imprenditore del 21 ° secolo, Internet è qui per aiutarvi. Con l'apprendimento delle strategie di marketing on-line, è possibile costruire tutti che sei figura reddito residuo in questo settore è dopo. Il 17 marzo 2006, Apple ha rilasciato un altro annuncio nuovo iPod. Questo annuncio le distanze dallo stile tradizionale silhouette, e conteneva migliaia di copertine CD versando in un iPod nano. L'annuncio utilizza ancora una volta lo slogan 1000 canzoni in tasca,moncler, in riferimento agli annunci iniziali di lancio di iPod. Dimensione - Sì, è vero, la dimensione dell'organo maschile è spesso con l'invecchiamento. In primo luogo, il vecchio adagio, use it or lose it, è vero. Flusso ridotto di sangue - spesso il risultato della placca-come depositi nei vasi sanguigni - può provocare un ingrandimento minore. Come è noto, gli Annunaki sono miniere di oro su Phobos. La quarantena inseguito Annunaki dalla Terra da una serie di incidenti che coinvolgono maltempo e grandi predatori. In sostanza,moncler outlet, il Annunaki deciso Terra non era un buon posto per condurre operazioni di estrazione, e se ne andò. Ora che questo lavoro sta per essere a Sundrees, io sto facendo la mia piccola regina del Design a prezzi accessibili da Estee Lauder, Principessa Sto acquistando piccoli tavoli in legno per visualizzare i miei gioielli e perni, con piccole sedie nere windsor,moncler sito ufficiale, e felicemente, alcuni casi da forno 01:12! Carino e divertente sooooo! Dimenticate giocare nell'amore piccolo mondo utilizzando il mezzo per vendere la torsione sul supporto,piumini moncler. Sundrees è un negozio divertente qui in Tburg pieno di cose davvero meravigliose e di buon gusto e hanno offerto di portare i miei teensies, cammei, stampe, cartoline, illos. Ho ottenuto alcuni grandi stampe realizzate insieme ad alcuni grandi (stampato un lato) che sono in esecuzione attraverso la mia fustellatrice Accucut a darmi 5,5 x 5,5 finito di dimensioni (due volte) carte del mio mercato degli agricoltori corone,piumini moncler.Related Articles：
<ul>

<li>Naruto and Final Fantasy cosplay to be the popular items..</li>

<li>ha creato più di 700 brevetti relative allo sport.</li>

<li>such the one existing in Minnesota</li>

</ul>

== moncler pas cher ==

Massage the scalp with warm almond or olive oil,doudoune moncler pas cher. Take half cup of clean water and two egg yolks,, beat egg yolks in a cup of water,doudoune moncler. Use it as a massage on the scalp and hair for 5-10 minutes,moncler. The Acer S230HL Abii (starting at $170) is the most expensive monitor on our list but also the largest, at 23 inches. Experts and consumers alike appreciate the size and picture quality. While the lack of a commonly used DVI-D input puzzles reviewers, this display does include not just one but two HDMI ports, so you can connect devices such as a Blu-ray player or game console in addition to a PC. Do not hesitate to shop around because the options are endless. Thousands of reputable companies are designing men's accessories because they are in such high demand. Men deserve to look stylish because the metrosexual approach is becoming increasingly popular,doudoune moncler femme,moncler. Police reports have been filed about him from florida to texas. Jennifer clark says she met holycross on the internet dating site plenty of fish. She was so smitten, the two lived together. combination of software plus services gives customers advanced choice and flexibility in how they access and manage software, says Gates,doudoune moncler. Microsoft Online Services, businesses can deploy software as a subscription service, from servers they manage on-site,moncler pas cher, or a combination of the two, depending on their specific needs,doudoune moncler. In the future, customers and partners should expect to see this kind of choice and flexibility for all of Microsoft software and server products. Then in May, 1965, he auditioned and won the Principal Tuba position in the Dallas Symphony Orchestra, where he played for thirty years, until his retirement in 1995. In addition to his work with the Dallas Symphony,moncler femme pas cher, Ev was an Adjunct Professor of Tuba Studies at Southern Methodist University. After his retirement he held the same position at University of North Texas until the time of his illness,doudoune moncler pas cher.

== ma con un certo tipo di narrativa ==

Velocità e movimento, questo è quello che Warsow è tutto. Come un vero Cyberathlete si salta, dash, dodge e walljump il vostro senso attraverso il gioco. Prendete quei power-up prima del tuo nemico fa, la bomba prima che qualcuno ti veda, e rubare la bandiera nemica prima che qualcuno sa cosa sta succedendo!. Sto cercando di fare un progetto di ricerca sulle simulazioni di Los Angeles. Io non sono tanto interessati a volo e di guida giochi sims, ma con un certo tipo di narrativa, o, se possibile giochi dio. Gli unici due che mi viene in mente la parte superiore della mia testa sono GTA di Los Santos e un titolo vecchio PC chiamato Terminator. I colori sono vivaci, gli effetti sono stati rifatti e il tema di apertura intero Alexander Courage è stato ri-registrato. Tutto questo e l'episodio ha portato quarto un po 'di storia dell' Enterprise prima di Kirk assunse il comando. Tutto ciò che e completamente noioso. Uno dei colpevoli principali di immischiarsi negli affari di governo dell'America Latina nella prima metà del 20 ° secolo fu la United Fruit Company. Erano una società statunitense fondata nel 1899 dal retro di una joint ferrovia in Costa Rica. Una parte importante della strategia di United Fruit Company è stato quello di ottenere il controllo della distribuzione di banana terra crescita. Quello che ho ottenuto è stato un fax da un uomo molto arrabbiato. Era livido che avevo avuto il coraggio di dirgli quando lasciare sua figlia avvia incontri! C'è sempre la possibilità che egli semplicemente non stava ascoltando, ma se era serio e risentito ricevendo il suggerimento su una corretta datazione, allora io sono sbalordito. Sarò più attento in futuro, per consentire al pubblico di sapere che sto dando le informazioni in modo che saranno in una posizione migliore per prendere una decisione saggia per conto delle loro figlie.

== the user has to consider six important factors. ==

A Bathing Ape hoodie vest It can be surprisingly difficult to pull off vests, but Kanye makes it all so easy with his combination of relaxed jeans and a designer T-shirt. The vest is really the icing on the cake though, by making the tried-and-true jeans-and-T-shirt combo look totally fresh and up-to-date. This Bathing Ape hoodie vest evokes the hip-hop star style. I'm working towards starting EMDR. As my T told me i need to be stable enough to cope with it. He has tried it once and i had to focus on one memory while having headphones on that kept beeping in each ear and report what i felt and could feel physically. When he was a baby/toddler we have to actively entertain him, constantly. He never played with any of his toys, ever. Then we hit terrible 2's, which turned into terrible 3's which people blew off as "well terrible 3's are common" then terrible 4's, and 5's. Analog has the tendency to not always be clear when listening to different sounds. With digital everything is always amazing sounding because everything goes through a transmitter. The transmitter unit is actually called the base for the digital wireless headphones. Back at home, Julia and Joel confer. They both blew it. Now it's time to trust Amber, since Sarah said they should. These include long-term wearing comfort and high quality sonic clarity to help them discharge their function seamlessly. The art of deejaying also involves some level of movement and constant changes in audio levels therefore the chosen headphones should be able to handle all these different conditions. When buying DJ headphones, the user has to consider six important factors. Then, on July 10 cha-cha over to Hudson River Park's Pier 54 to catch her as she performs with Yerba Buena, the Afro-Cuban-pop fusion group she co-founded. Known as New York's Latin-Groove Funk Collective, Yerba Buena has received critical acclaim and a Grammy Award nomination. Together with Si-Se's mix of electronic, jazz, and Latin, both bands will create a RiverRocks Celebracion not to be missed.

== NEW YORK POST ==

Subjective issues (religion, politics, musical taste, etc) are the most touchy, and when conflict and disagreement erupt around them, people become upset. A new person you're interested in starting a conversation with has no interest in getting into an argument with a stranger. Conversation based around deep thoughts and strong opinions and radical ideas doesn't occur until after you're fairly well acquainted with someone (unless you're part of a society similar to E2). Furthermore, we have the even trendier Bluetooth headsets. These are amazing pieces of technology that anyone who wants to enjoy their music needs to consider having. In case you have been looking for a reason to throw away your old ear buds, then the reason lies in these Bluetooth headphones.. NEW YORK POST (FREE): Let say that someone, and we are not naming names here, has a bit of a taste for the tabloid side of the street. But it might seem less than green to buy a dead-tree version of the New York Post just to look in on Page Six and see what kind of war the sports section is attempting to gin up. The New York Post app is so there for you. Lombardi relates the nightmarish 'Anecdote' to the falling out Stevens' experienced over his desired engagement to Elsie, making several possible connections, especially between 'red' and the rage expressed between himself and his father at that time. I particularly like these sentences: "Berserk, then, proceeds to explain his behavior vis-a-vis the poet's. With ominous words he warns the poet, who between1908 and 1912 had become a wanderer far from home, though he occasionally frequented 'the bushy plain,' not 'For(gotten) so soon.' The fact is, the 'traps' of the past - set 'in the midst of dreams' (when Stevens' new life with Elsie was at its inception) - exist in the present. Team building activities are great, when they don't impose on people in a way that can potentially compromise the quality of their work. I listen to progressive metal and old-school punk on a regular basis. One of my developers only listens to jazz.

== Eric Gramatges ==

Eric Gramatges, the afternoon Romeo (several of the roles are double cast) might be better suited to a heroic role in a huge hall with a large orchestra. Here, in the intimacy of this hall, his big steely voice sounded like he was wooing Juliette through a bullhorn and his inert stage presence communicated no sexual tension at all. Both Kwang Kyu Lee as the Friar and Jason Moon as Count Capulet sang beautifully, however, and the chorus was well coached.. Sporting a rugged, yet lightweight magnesium swivel/fold mechanism these Pioneer DJ headphones are robust, comfortable, and compact to transport. Each ear-cup gives excellent insulation and swivels a full 90 degrees using a new i-hinge with auto-return, which presents great flexibility, especially for DJs who prefer the 'on-shoulder' method of monitoring. To improve monitoring, there is also a convenient STEREO/MONO switch. As you eat, different foods make different sounds. These sounds reach your inner ears through two routes. First, there is the common way, via air disturbances that travel from your mouth out into the surrounding air and then around to your ears. RelationshipsThere is a "relationship" between the first note and it's fifth or third interval. This relationship is mathematical and can be seen visually, as in the example of the string above. It can be seen on a piano keyboard. "Washington's Mike Sellers might have made a big mistake when he questioned the clamor at Qwest," blared a Seattle Times headline. "Mike Sellers Can You Hear Us!" fans asked via homemade T-shirts. "100% Natural Noise" read one sign inside the stadium. When Avery was in the dressing room, according to Stars veteran Mike Modano, he was often on his phone, discussing a potential book deal or his movie project, a romantic comedy based on the life of the only NHL player to spend his summer as an intern at Vogue. He just seemed unwilling to do what we were all asked to do, on and off the ice. assistant coach, a profane blowup at an Anaheim broadcaster, the cartoonish harassment of an opposing goalie in the postseason, the obscenities showered on fans in Nashville and Boston-merely add up to a Sean Avery starter kit.

== 監督会幹事長 ==

また準備作業、演奏会当日の段取りなど、きめ細かな配慮なども大変勉強になりました。ぜひ来年も演奏会を聞きに行きたいと思います特定非営利活動法人フルーツバスケット理事長高岸益子 ◇ ◇ ◇ 拝啓残暑ようやく衰え、校友の皆様におかれましてはお変わりなくお過ごしのこととお慶び申し上げます。おかげさまで部員も元気に過ごしています。 これは6月に某体育会クラブの2学生がバイク事故を起こし、うち1名が重傷のため今後の活動の継続が危ぶまれる状況に陥ったことを考慮し、幸い該当学生は一命をとりとめ活動再開も間近であるが、交通ルールの遵守、その他昨今よく耳にする大学生のクラブ内の暴力・窃盗・痴漢行為・薬物使用等についての注意喚起が必要との判断により、同志社大学体育会監督会、同志社スポーツユニオン（体育会OB・OG組織）の後援のもと実施されたものです最初に体育会本部山本翔吾総務部長から開催趣旨の説明として、「バイク事故で重傷になった同乗学生がヘルメットをかぶらず交通ルールが守られていなかったことを重く考え、世間でよく聞く暴力・窃盗・薬物使用等についても、この機会にコンプライアンスについてよく考えていただき、体育会学生としての意識を高めていただきたい」と話がありましたその後宇野原（貴夫）監督会幹事長（スキー部監督）から話がありました。「6月10日に発生したバイク事故の該当学生は7時間の手術、2日間意識不明の状態から奇跡的に回復に至った。相手のある交通事故は自分だけでは済まない、相手にも苦しみを与えてしまう。 いや、必ずそうなります。そうならなくては、世の中が納得しません。そもそも実質的には、月に数日しか働いていなかったたかじんさんですから、そんなにゆっくり休んでいい道理が無いんです。

== the first iPad had different specs ==

The case weighs 3.7 ounces (that's in addition to the iPhone's 4.8 ounces, so it approaches two iPhones in heft). It has a sturdy clip permanently attached to the back, so you'll have a hard time fitting it into a pocket. It attaches nicely to backpack or purse straps, or a belt.. As stated by Wheat Williams, the iPad 2 does not allow much power through the USB port found on iPad Camera Connector Kit (the first iPad had different specs), and even most thumb Flash drives require too much power. A work around that might suit under some recording circumstances is to use an AC powered USB hub, and let the MXL USB mic draw its power from the wall rather than straight from the iPad 2. The requirement of access to an AC source is the obvious drawback, but it does work well. It should not be used as a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis or treatment. LIVESTRONG is a registered trademark of the LIVESTRONG Foundation. Moreover, we do not select every advertiser or advertisement that appears on the web site-many of the advertisements are served by third party advertising companies.. George Hincapie and his blinged-out headphones will be . while the sport />bigger issues go unaddressed. to offer teams better long-term security . George Hincapie (BMC) has just started his 17th Tour de . but things didn go. 'He had found him, so it was like a personal thing that he should bring him back.' When Shaw finally surfaced in the late-afternoon sun, he removed his mask and said: 'I want to try to take him out.'Deep-water divers have always been the daredevils of the diving community, pushing far into the dark labyrinths of water-filled holes and extreme ocean depths. It's a small global fraternity - there are no more than a dozen members - and only six people other than Shaw have ever pulled off successful dives below 820 feet. (More people have walked on the moon, Shirley likes to point out.) At least three ran into serious trouble in the process and two have since died.'Today extreme divers are far exceeding any reasonable physiology capabilities,' says Tom Mount, a pioneer in technical diving.

== oehzbw ynegiv yndvyp ==

La Cabana Bonavita a un design intemporel et classique rappelle l'époque des Caraïbes d'il ya longtemps. Il semble solide, mais ses lignes courbes douces lui donner un léger aspect et la convivialité. Il est un simple panneau sculpté sur le marchepied qui correspond le détail sculpté sur le rail haut de la tête de lit. Cette ex-Miss France sera suivie d'autres Françaises comme Denise Perrier (Les diamants sont éternels) ou encore Corinne Cléry (Moonraker). Personne n'a oublié la première James Bond Girl, Ursula Andress, sortant de l'eau affublée de son joli bikini ivoire. C'était en 1962 dans James Bond contre Dr No.. Tout d'abord, vous voulez réfléchir à vos objectifs spécifiques. Vous pouvez constater que vous vous dirigez vers le bas un cheminement de carrière qui vous oblige à devenir très familier avec la nutrition holistique, naturopathie traditionnelle ou diététique naturelle. Ce sont les seuls sujets qui relèvent de programmes d'études au Collège Clayton de Santé Naturelle.. Pour que vous puissiez avoir votre propre nom comme un site Web, vous devez d'abord enregistrer un nom de domaine et d'hébergement pour obtenir ce domaine. C'est moi. J'ai une préférence pour être avec? L'un des grands garçons? similaire à GoDaddy. L'iPad killer, on l'attend toujours. 3 millions d'iPad vendus plus tard, les prétendants ne se bousculent pas au portillon. Le Dell Streak, disponible en France depuis fin juillet à partir de 599 euros, arrive le 13 août aux Etats-Unis. Le comportement des stagiaires au travail après la formation. Les effets globaux sur l'entreprise. Facteurs ultimes, tels que la survie des entreprises, le profit et le bien-être des parties intéressées. Dentelle de Calais, de Chantilly, de Valenciennes, guipure, satin et plissé de soie composent l'univers de Delphine Manivet. Cette jeune styliste de 34 ans a imposé sa marque en affichant un style bohème chic et glamour. Loin des robes meringues et des corsets lacés, elle ne jure que par la beauté des matières, la pureté des lignes.

== and a new course of antibiotics ==

At any rate, it's all a pretty scary conundrum during shaky economic times. Personally, I would not like to have to spend the ridiculous amount of time it would take to remit small payments and reports to 50 different states, or get into trouble with one of them, if I made an error. Plus, any reduction in my sales, of course, would hurt our family tremendously.. When I first moved to New York 16 years ago it felt like one big outlet here. New York had so many discount stores, bargain bin stores, 99 cent stores and Designers outlets. Now there not many left because the rents are so high. When taking antibiotics, be sure to finish your prescription. Failure to do so might result in a relapse (and a new course of antibiotics) or the development of antibiotic resistance. More tips on how to balance caution and hypochondria.. So, Act Two begins with an extended exchange where Estragon does not recall a single occurrence from the day before. Vladimir's triumphant proof that his memories are correct is that Estragon's boots are still there, but this same proof is deconstructed when Estragon insists that the boots there are not the same color that his were, and later that they are big on him, having previously been too small. Now, the audience presumably cannot see the boots, and the director is given no stage direction is for what color they really are (that is, he or she is not instructed as to which character is correct). "For your reputation management strategy, don't go out and buy a bunch of expensive EMDs that you think will rank well for your business searches," concluded Sorensen. "Not only are they being devalued but they also have a reputation as bad sites in the first place. Instead, focus on building a solid brand, improving your customer service, build a positive social strategy, and getting noticed for being a positive company with a great product. Well, an additional utmost critical factor is the fact that these boots are thorough with part pockets that give them a totally trendy too as sensible appear (New style is emerging in boots featuring part pockets). they're featured with within zippers for delivering the wearer a snug suit comfort. they are heading to even allow you far better traction and toughness using the characteristics of EVA outsole and molded rubber pod.

== It's brilliant ==

Clams are also used as fish bait, and their shells can be made into buttons. Two heavy muscles open and close the shells. The clam has no head, no biting mouth parts, and no arms or legs. As good as it may sound, ecommerce has its own share of obstacles too that hold it back from assuming it's full potential. To begin with, Internet in itself is still to touch the lives of a large chunk of people as an integral way of life. There are tangible privacy and security issues that keep people on guard, as they face a dilemma each time they need to divulge highly personal information online, as and when they transact online.. When you are purchasing something as important as printer ink and cartridges, you want to feel sure you are being helped by staff who know exactly what they are talking about. This is another major benefit of buying printer cartridges online. The staff know their stuff.. The United Nations is trying to battle Blood Diamonds. They have implemented a process that certifies a diamond is conflict free. It is called the Kimberly Process certification scheme. Matt Mays calls Dartmouth the New Jersey of Nova Scotia. If that's the case, you could say he is the Bruce Springsteen of the Maritimes. Songs about life in Mays' unheralded hometown located on the other side of the big city are reminiscent of how Springsteen so often wrote about the characters on the Jersey Shore during his early career. It's brilliant! I'd never heard of it before reading your question, Jay - thanks so much for bringing it to my attention. Sanitation work carries some of the same taint that the sociologist discovered on the planet Elsevere. I'm putting together a course that explores Discard Studies, a new interdisciplinary field intended to organize and network scholarship on a range of garbage-y themes. Cross explained that she was a stay-at-home mom for 10 years with two children, now in their 20s. When she returned to work she an early childhood education specialist she wanted to stock up on children books so began haunting garage sales, thrift stores and Value Village. Inevitably, she found other she couldn pass up.

== How well do guests know their household tools ==

2) Informed Consent: It's a legal form signed by participant, giving researcher a permission to use information obtain during the course of an interview. This is a critical part of preparing an interview because it will determine how much information researcher is allowed to use (some participant might not want to be known to have said certain things, so he/she does not wish to use real name). If the subject of an interview is underage, the consent must be obtained from his/her parents or guardians. After all, a top solution is going to produce top results, and in email marketing, that's going to translate into more direct sales for your business. The process begins when you enlist the help of a top autoresponder service, but with so many services available, it can be challenging to single out the one that can best meet your needs. However, focusing on what characteristics denote a great service can help you simplify your search and lead you to the best one for your business.. He unfortunately knows what his daughter thinks of him. He is full or regret and lacks the time to change what he feels he has done wrong. I'd be sad too if I got to the end of my life and felt that way.. After accepting, say, US citizenship, they are American and enjoy the same rights and privileges that other US citizens get. Why should it be any different with sports? Going by your argument, Strauss and Prior may have been born in SA but they learned their trade in the UK. Even more absurd is the case of slamming Monty Panesar. "What I would desperately like to leave behind is hungry children in Guilford County. I am not talking about young athletes like my three teenagers who are unstoppable eating machines, who are hungry between bites. Within a 15-minute drive of where we all work and live, children are hungry daily. Touch test: How well do guests know their household tools? The touch test will tell. Before the shower begins, the hostess numbers as many lunch bags as there are guests. She places one common item from the kitchen, bathroom and garage in each bag, ties the top closed and arranges the bags around a table.

== Delta Air Lines Inc. ==

The airlines pay the distribution services and travel websites every time a traveler clicks to buy a ticket outside the airline website. The distribution services take is an average of $3.10 for each flight segment, according to a federal filing in November by airlines including American, Continental, Delta Air Lines Inc., United, and US Airways Group . The fee would add up to $12.40 for a round-trip ticket with a stop in each direction, the airlines wrote.. My visitor left me highly educated on the variety of Indian food widely available all over Dubai. I could almost taste it all as she spoke. Beijing is a world apart from desi Dubai. •With technology growing super fast, now first aid online assistance is available on your mobile phone too. They are like special applications you can download on to your phone and use whenever required. These applications have comprehensive procedures and in simple language that anybody can understand and follow. Cleaner OceansJust as plastic bags are easily swept into the air, they're blown into the world's oceans. Here they present a grave danger to ocean wildlife. Sea turtles are known to ingest plastic bags, since when floating on the surface of the water they are easily mistaken for jellyfish, a primary food source for the turtles. Take Interstate 49 northbound to Exit 201 (Louisiana 3132 exit). Louisiana 3132 becomes Interstate 220. Take Exit 1C to the Interstate 20 East exit. Also, encourage him to get therapy. Go with him. He's trying to fill an emotional void of some sort with all that "stuff". Hip Hop Abs is a weight loss program that is designed to be fun and help you lose weight. It was developed by a man who simply goes by the name Shaun T. who claims he lost 50 pounds simply by dancing the weight off and having fun. As he was leaving the field, Spikes took off his helmet and flung it. Teammate Melvin Ingram caught it. Backup tight end Randy McMichael walked Spikes off the field and the two hugged before Spikes disappeared up the tunnel.

== du sexe ==

Bonjour à tous, j'ai eu le même problème que vous avec le 3629. J'ai téléphoné à Orange pour en savoir plus. Il s'agit d'un nouveau système de facturation. Le roman se présente sous la forme de tentre-trois tableaux traçant les épisodes de la vie d'Anaise-Frida. Les registres des rapports matrimoniaux, du sexe, de la musique, du mysticisme, des puissances abyssales sont superposés de si belle manière que les lecteurs arrivent à vibrer au plus profond d'eux-mêmes. Écriture des bas fonds et des tripes, dans l'enfer d'un tourbillon passionnel, Fado est le miroir d'un bordel, miroir à travers lequel les lecteurs contemplent leur propre vie, dans celle des autres. Apart from fashion sense when it comes to females wearing male body armor, there are also the practical issues to worry about. For instance, the male body armor broad shoulders restrict one's arm movements while the front armor plate length cuts into leg circulation whenever the ladies sit. Female body armor prototypes based on sizing and fitting tests are being worked on, so we could get a modern day Samus in probably a few years' time.. Les promesses des politiques de droites comme de gauche ne sont que des effets de genres, rien d'autre. Les partis politiques et les religions sont entretenus par la plus grande organisation terroriste du monde, la Mondialisation. Cette manœuvre déguisée par des jeux d'élections "démocratiques" permet à la Mondialisation de mieux nous diviser pour régner, et la corruption étant le plus grand mouvement politique de la démocratie mondiale, tous les élus du monde organisent sur ordre de la Mondialisation la faillite des salariés, des retraités, des générations futures, des états, des droits sociaux etc. Les erreurs les cheveux plats qui retombent le long du visage, ils accroissent le c rond et enfantin. Aussi, les coiffures boules, les coupes au bol, les carr courts au-dessus de la m ou encore la raie au milieu ne mettent absolument pas en valeur un visage rond. Vous pouvez porter les cheveux raides ou ondul mais toujours avec une bonne dose de volume..

== une supérette ==

Cet emblème caractéristique de la marque a été créé par le peintre-paysagiste Maurice Giot. En 1936 le paquet est revu par le graphiste Marcel Jacno qui procède également à quelques retouches pour le casque. C'est à cette date que le bleu, toujours d'usage, du paquet est introduit. « Il faut faire attention au juste équilibre entre les exigences économiques et environnementales, met en garde Alain Chapelle, délégué général du SPMP (Syndicat professionnel des matières plastiques). A Bruxelles, il y a une surenchère permanente sur l'environnement, qui peut pousser à la désindustrialisation et qui peut aussi cacher des guerres de matériaux. » Pour l'instant, en tout cas, la Commission européenne peut crier victoire. Recette n° 3 : " Lancez une proposition directe -"Je vous en livre une palette ?" - dès que vous lvé les objections du client " > Le verdict de nos vendeurs d'éliteBeaucoup de commerciaux connaissant « la peur de gagner », au moment de faire signer le bon de commande, la proposition directe permettrait à la fois de convaincre l'acheteur et de décomplexer le vendeur. « Intéressant, confirme Olivier Blondeau, mais à condition d'avoir une vraie capacité à rebondir en cas de refus. » Frédéric Mery a donc plutôt pour règle de ne rien proposer abruptement : « Je sors le contrat assez tôt, je l'ouvre devant le prospect pour lui en faire lire quelques clauses. Description de l'hôtel Nashira Hotel SpaConstruit en 2006 et rénové en 2007, l'hôtel compte 466 chambres dont 4 chambres adaptées aux besoins des personnes à mobilité réduite. Il comprend un hall d'accueil avec une réception ouverte 24h/24, un coffre-fort, un bureau de change, un ascenseur, un café, un kiosque à journaux, une supérette, un salon de coiffure, un bar, une discothèque et un auditorium. De plus, l'hôtel dispose d'une salle de jeux, d'une salle de télévision, d'un restaurant, de salles de conférence et d'un accès Internet. Iniesta est un des grands architectes du jeu de l'Espagne et de son triplé inédit Euro-2008/Mondial-2010/Euro-2012. Iniesta, désigné meilleur joueur de l'Euro-2012 et meilleur joueur UEFA de la saison 2011-12, fait aussi partie de ces rares stars humbles, au profil de gendre idéal. Mais que peut-il faire face à un Messi qui fait l'unanimité ?.

== sign boards ==

Include a call to action in your promotional material. At the same time, append your website address to your restaurant's signage both inside and outside. Print it on your staff's T-shirts, sign boards, delivery vans, product packaging etc.. We know that about 50% of marriages end in divorce. That doesn't mean that the other half are happy. Tons of marriages are unhappy, but they stay together. ``She was born into a `Mama and Papa' shop and now every shop is her shop. Sometimes she can get worked up about something small. ``You can spend an hour talking about direction and the future and she is a focused and as visionary as anyone. Danni R. is a certified medical assistant (CMA) through the American Association of Medical Assistants (AAMA) and a certified clinical and administrative medical assistant (CCMA and CMAA) through the National Healthcareer Association (NHA). has mentored countless students and generated millions of page views of educational content through this and other related websites. Due to this reason, lots of people look for designer replica bags as these are available cheaply. These bags cost a fraction of cost when compared to native designer bags also; it is very hard to detect their duplicity. Replica bags are ideal for people who don't hold high balances in their bank accounts books. Such is the nature of existence. Whatever happens I see a new phase in your life whether you want or not. Embrace this change, do not fear it and take action for future happiness. For conservatives, the relevant statistic is not how much GDP grows, but how much of it is in the hands of how few people. The middle class is not merely a casualty of this agenda, but a target, seen to be competing for both money and political power. If Ms.

== all of which came on 3-pointers. ==

If you want to start making rap beats there is an answer for first timers, professionals, and tweeners. The solution is in the form of software that gives you access to thousands of beats that you can use and implement very easily. In fact, you need a DAW (Digital Audio Workstation). 5, with 65,000. Mariah Carey's "Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel" slipped four spots to No. 7 with 54,000, and Miley Cyrus' "The Time of Our Lives" climbed three spots to No. If you don watch what you put in your mouth, this fork will or at least try to. Called HAPIfork, it a fork with a fat handle containing electronics and a battery. A motion sensor knows when you are lifting the fork to your mouth. In case you are into music in the serious way, then you definitely would like to get the best sound quality that you can. Additionally , you wish to have the ability to listen to your music on the move and appear good whilst you're performing it, right? If this sounds like a person, then you will wish to know more about Doctor Dre headsets. In this post all of us have a look at their own capabilities and inform you where cheap beats through dre headphones could be located.. We took a hit, but to come out here and get a win and respond is really what this thing's all about." New Mexico has won 10 of its last 12 games against Wyoming and five of the last six in Laramie. The Cowboys (15-5, 2-5) have lost three straight. Wyoming was led by Derrious Gilmore's 15 points, all of which came on 3-pointers.

== whose career ran from 1969-'80 ==

The first step to a work from home lifestyle is to research your options for home businesses. These options are varied, so you are sure to find just what you are looking for in a business. You could stuff envelopes, do taxes, or fill out Internet surveys. In the 15th century, the invention of the lock -- the firing mechanism on the gun -- made for the creation of the first reliable handguns. The first was the French arquebus, a short-barreled firearm held at the shoulder and small enough to be handled by one man. A gunpowder-soaked cord burned at both ends until it touched a pan of flash powder, which sent a half-ounce ball soaring toward its enemy. Vonn, 28, had won four of the previous five World Cup overall titles -- emblematic of all-around excellence -- and, with 59 race victories, had moved into second place all-time among women (three behind Annemarie Moser-Proell of Austria, whose career ran from 1969-'80), when she crashed 45 seconds into the first of her races the at the worlds. Vonn was trailing current World Cup overall leader Tina Maze of Slovenia by a very small margin in the race when she landed hard on a jump and her right knee collapsed violently inward. She fell immediately and somersaulted to a stop further down the hillside.. With iPhones, syncing to your other devices is far from effortless - you will need to plug into your computers and connect to iTunes to accomplish this instead of being able to do it wirelessly. Android phones win this category as they support good over-the-air syncing with your Google account. Even if you lost your previous Android phone, simply entering your Google account into a new one will see you happily back on track..

Best Women, Very Best Very Hot Women8965449

2012-10-24T10:58:01Z

RonaldewxovdpnzgChesteen: Created page with '<a href="http://earthquakemap.info">mature</a> <a href="http://earthquakemap.info">mature</a> many adult men get a day within just couple times time by getting in touch with the …'

<a href="http://earthquakemap.info">mature</a>
<a href="http://earthquakemap.info">mature</a>
many adult men get a day within just couple times time by getting in touch with the sizzling Indian girls via the web site. At Escorts in Ludhiana we cater our services to VIP's and elite purchasers who are trying to get optimum superior & own companionship. You endeavor to dissect the circumstance and you are still left bewildered and desperate for a choice to your situation.
All types of people belong to a single purely natural species due to the fact all types of human beings are inter-fertile, and this is biological evidence that we are all descendants of a widespread human ancestor. And here is the good information. By now, you not only can produce on the wall, but also article attachments to it.
Some most of these swimwear models these forms of as a new little or quite possibly a little g-string are having said that sizzling and spicy nevertheless will nonetheless consist of that you merely minor a good deal a lot more. Boring the Life Out of Her: Trying not to screw things up, guys will (at times not even knowing) converse about subjects such as the weather, their deliver the results or sports activities. And largely if you do it like this you will acknowledge when a though that your wallet will get lighter and lighter.
I am sorry but it is not my intention to confound things but remember to to not converse solely about all by yourself. There is very little that is tough on HotGirlsHub if you are engaged. Shush Escorts will be increase a lot more glory like jewel to fulfill your wants and demonstrate how outstanding she is.
Some put on their under garments for adult men and ladies to see their shots, some <a href="http://earthquakemap.info">mature</a> even put on transparent sarees or tops that reveal some of their personal essence. Keep It Extremely Easy We know most guys enjoy steak, but in this case, try out earning salad and pasta. Really, this way you are only limiting the quantity of girls who could be engaged in you.
If you are looking to guide Aucklands most popular group of feminine strippers then you have come to the right put! I unquestionably assume in this content. Bands have to change and adjust, like everyone else in living do, to always keep their career promising in the future.
I guess you will need to now know that starting up off with compliments mars a lot more than it may make. And that, my friend, is how to decide up strippers and score in the strip clubs. When she actions on you all of a sudden, question her if this is her only way of displaying off, explain to her to try out harder, explain to her you are not as well inexpensive to fall for that very little trick.
There is a notable experience that when a band decides to increase up and produce a lot more about real living, adult scenarios they have develop into a far better band. Now we are heading to take a look and see why we can have a great deal of pleasurable with this! These places are normally considerably simpler to fulfill girls than at places like the Eaton Centre.

Speling et al. (2006)

2008-02-20T17:42:10Z

Tmarx310:

[[Category:Synesthesia Symposium]]
Neuronal Correlates of Colour-Graphemic Synaesthesia: A fMRI Study by Sperling, Prvulovic, Linden, and Stirn

The 2006 article by Sperling et al. focused on determining a neurological basis for synaesthesia (specifically color-grapheme synaesthesia, in which persons report seeing colors "superimposed" on words and letters, even if the text is not colored or is written/typed with a different color ink). Operating under the hypothesis that a synaesthete would show activation in the color processing area of the brain (V4/V8). Using an "AB boxcar design", subjects were shown sets of letters that either elicited a synaesthetic (color) response or did not. Justifying their hypothesis, letters eliciting a color response were found to correlate with increased activation of the color processing areas.

http://www.dana.org/uploadedImages/Images/Content_Images/art_v4n3cytowic_5.jpg

http://www-mariachi.physics.sunysb.edu/wiki/images/thumb/8/8e/Synaesthesia.jpg/180px-Synaesthesia.jpg

Aleman et al. (2001)

2008-02-20T17:41:45Z

Sriegsecker:

[[Category:Synesthesia Symposium]]

This study looks at the most common form of synesthesia, seeing words one hears in color (colored hearing). Aleman et. al. aimed to find if the [http://editthis.info/psy3242/Primary_visual_cortex_%28V1%29 primary visual cortex] (V1) would be triggered when the subject heard a letter and did not have a visual stimulus in front of them. The subject of this study was a 32-year-old woman who reported having colored hearing since childhood. In the first test, she was asked to say what color she associated with each letter of the alphabet (alphabet-color test). Two years later, she was given the same test while undergoing [http://editthis.info/psy3242/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging fMRI]. Despite the time span, she only missed '''one''' letter, for a 96% accuracy rate, suggesting that she did have colored hearing. Through fMRI, the researchers were able to pinpoint the location of activation and confirm that the primary visual cortex (V1) was activated. These findings are consistent with recent theories about synesthesia. Finally, the authors suggest further research should be conducted to see if other areas of the brain are activated, such as [http://editthis.info/psy3242/V4 V4].

Nikolic et al. (2007)

2008-02-20T17:41:25Z

Ccook:

[[Category:Synesthesia Symposium]]

== '''Color Opponency in Synaesthetic Experiences''' ==

----

== '''Introduction''' ==

The '''Stroop task''' asks participants to say the name of the color a word is written in. Time reaction is measured. The challenging thing about this task is that generally the word written is the name of a different color than the color ink it is written in.

[[Image:Stroopab..jpg]]
''Example of a Stroop Task''

In this experiment, thte task is attempting to study '''grapheme color synaesthesia''', which is a neurological condition where perceptions of words or numbers are associated with perception of colors. In synaesthetes, the reaction time is decreased if the ink color of the word being read is the same color as the synaesthetic color association (congruent condition). There is a longer reaction time if the two colors are different (incongruent conditions).

There is a neurological explanation for this as discovered through the use of MRI tests. In the brain, certain neurons perceive and process visual stimuli. These neurons have '''color-opponent fields'''. For example, cells excited by red are inhibited by green, and the reverse is true. The same situation exists with cells excited by blue and inhibited by yellow.

This study attempts to identify the neural location of these color interactions. A specific Stroop test was created for this study that created incongruent conditions. One task's real color was '''opponent''' to the synaesthetic color, and the other had the real color '''not opposing''' the synaesthetic color. The hypothesis is that in the '''opponent''' incongruent conditions the two colors would involve the same color channels in the brain, and that in the '''non-opposing''' incongruent condition the colors would be perceived by different channels. It was hypothesized that it will take participants longer to name the colors that are opponent.

== '''Experiment I''' ==

'''Participants'''
This experiment consisted of 6 synaesthetes, 4 of which were associators (they reported seeing colors on an 'internal screen'. 2 were projectors (seeing colors projected on things they looked at) There were 12 control participants that were not synaesthetic.

'''Procedure'''

For each synaesthetic five colors with the highest grapheme-color associations were chosen and used in three conditions. 1. ''Congruent condition'' where the color grapheme was the same as the synaesthetic color. 2. ''Incongruent opponent condition'' where the color of the graphmem was opposite on the color wheel of the synaesthetic color. 3. ''Incongruent independent condition'' where the color of the grapheme and the synaesthetic color were represented by different opponent-color channels. The test took place in a dim room and was administered using a computer. The subjects were asked to state the names of the the colors they saw into a microphone and the time it took for them to say the color was measured.

'''Results'''

Results showed that color naming was quicker in the congruent condition than in both the incongruent conditions. In the incongruent conditions significant differences were also found, color naming was quicker in the incongruent independent condition than in the incongruent opponent condition. This suggests that the interference induced by the synaesthetic colors was stronger when the real color of the grapheme was opponent to the synaesthetic color than when it was independent.

== '''Experiment II''' ==

The second experiment looked at semantic associations between shape and color. The Stroop tests were generally the same, except that the objects were associated with their normal colors (example- lemons are always associated with yellow). Interferences were expected if the object was colored in an unusual color. The expectation is that these associations are different than the synaesthetic associations and therefore do not involve the previously described opponent-color channels. Four syneasthetes from Experiment I and 8 control subjects participated in the study.

'''Procedure'''

The procedure was similar to that of Experiment I, except for the different Stroop task. There were three objects displayed, a heart, lemon and smiley face. Each appeared in three different conditions, presented 25 times each. The three conditions were congruent (yellow lemon), incongruent independent (red lemon), and incongruent opponent (blue lemon).

'''Results'''

There appeared to be no difference in performance between the syneasthetes and control subjects. The congruent condition was significantly different than the other two conditions. There was a small different between the incongruent independent and incongruent opponent conditions. There was an average increase in response time of 57ms from the incongruent conditions, as compared to the congruent condition.

== '''General Discussion''' ==

Nikolic et al. conclude that the synaesthetic color experiences interfere with the perception and naming of real colors depending if the colors are congruent or incongruent. If the colors are congruent then the response time is much shorter. The interference is much reduced when the two colors are incongruent but not nonopponent (not opposite on the color wheel). Experiment 2 shows that the stronger component reflects synaesthesia and depends on color opponency, (how similar of different the colors are). The weaker component reflects knowledge about synaesthetic associations but it is independent of color opponency.

Kim et al. (2006)

2008-02-20T17:41:05Z

Adipasqua:

[[Category:Synesthesia Symposium]]

== Introduction ==

In 2006, Chai-Youn Kim, Randolph Blake, and Thomas J. Palmeri ran two experiments on subjects with graphemic synesthesia to determine whether or not the synesthetically induced color that these individuals experience behaves just like real colors.

Through previous experiments in figure grouping, visual search, and orientation-contingent color aftereffects, researchers have verified the existence of real synesthetic experiences. However, up until this experiment, there had been few if any experiments designed to detect the differences between real color behavior and synesthetic color behavior, and how the two interact.

For instance, graphemic synesthetes readily report the color of a green letter, even when that letter’s synethetically induced color may be red. One might expect that the two colors would blend, yet these synesthetes describe the colors as if overlaying each other. Yet at the same time, we know that the two color forms can interact in what experimenters call the synesthetic stroop test. Basically, the synesthetically induced colors of a character interfere to reduce the efficiency by which a synesthete names the actual colors of letters.

== Experiment 1 ==

In this experiment, researchers pursued the interaction question by utilizing previously documented grouping effects from real colors, and attempting to replicate these effects with synesthetically-induced colors. For this, experimenters used two patients under the “projector” subtype of synesthete, where synthetically induced colors are seen directly on the corresponding characters and not in the “mind’s eye.”

Using two projector type synesthetes, WO and LR, experimenters first ran a bistable Apparent Motion (AM) test to study the role of synesthetic color grouping over time. AM is an illusion produced by rapidly switching the presentation of two overlaying frames, each with fixed tokens located at strategic positions. To visualize the effect, one can imagine a flip book that has only two different alternating pictures in it, with each picture displaying four tokens in different locations. If the tokens are located properly, the presentation of the two frames in rapid succession will induce an optical illusion of either clockwise (CW) or counterclockwise (CCW) rotation of the tokens.
The type of rotation more likely for the observer to see can be manipulated by how far corresponding tokens of frame one and frame two are spaced. An even better instrument for creating the illusion is color. For instance, a green token in frame one will appear to move to the position of a different green token in frame two, even if a corresponding red or achromatic token is closer. Experimenters use this idea to test whether or not synesthetic colors will also affect a synesthete’s perception of apparent motion. Since color has such a powerful ability to influence perceptual grouping over time in bistable AM, it affords experimenters an opportunity to study possible interactions between real and synesthetic colors.

The experimenters compared controls vs. synesthetes in four conditions: control, synesthetic, interaction, and real.

Control- frames 1 and 2 consisted of pairs of achromatic and non-synesthetic inducing characters.

Synesthetic- frames 1 and 2 contained two pairs of achromatic alphabetic characters, and in each frame one pair of characters induced one synesthetic color (red) and the other pair induced a different synesthetic color (blue).

Interaction- two pairs of physically colored and non-synthetic color inducing characters were presented in frame 1 and two different pairs of achromatic, synthetic color inducing characters with matching synesthetic colors were presented in frame 2.

Real- two pairs of physically colored, non-synthetic color inducing characters were presented in frame 1 and two different pairs of physically colored, non-synthetic color inducing were presented in frame two.

== ''Results'' ==

Both LR and WO experienced the illusion of motion in the synthetic trials, whereas the controls experienced none. This indicates that synthetic colors can behave like real colors, at least in regards to AM. Similarly, and even more remarkable, was the fact that LR and WO experienced perceived motion in the interaction trials, where only one frame is colored. This means that the real colors of frame one did in fact interact with the synthetic colors induced from characters on the other frame.

For some reason, WO experienced no perception of bistable AM in the real condition.

== Experiment 2 ==

The second experiment focused on how real and synesthetic colors interact through grouping by color during binocular rivalry. Binocular rivalry occurs when two images are presented to corresponding regions of an individual's eyes and the images compete for perceptual dominance rather than merging smoothly together. Knowing that color promotes perceptual grouping over space in binocular rivalry, Kim et al. wanted to investigate possible interactions between real and synesthetic colors in the same conditions.

WO and LR were tested once again on four conditions of binocular rivalry in which the colors of two competing objects in rival images were varied systematically (real and synesthetic). The observer initiated a 60-second trial by pressing a key and triggering a presentation of two rival targets. They were then responsible for tracking the duration or color groupings in each of the three conditions (synesthetic, interaction, real) by holding down a button when they perceived two characters of the same color.

== ''Results'' ==

For both synesthetic observers, the tendency to group real and synesthetic colors was comparable to that found for grouping between synesthetic colors or matches between actual colors.

== Implications ==

The interactions between the real and synesthetic colors in the experiments substantiated the emerging view that synesthetic colors are indeed perceptual in nature. Moreover, the results implicated that synesthetic colors can be as robust perceptually as real colors, showing a sort of co-existence of both types of color perception. Most importantly, Kim et al.'s study implied that real and synesthetic colors can cooperatively interact to specify motion perception and figural grouping.

Palmeri et al. (2002)

2008-02-20T17:40:34Z

Prea:

[[Category:Synesthesia Symposium]]

==Participant==

The focus of the study was on WO, an adult male who has experienced lexical synesthesia since early childhood. WO's mother, maternal grandfather, and maternal great uncle all experienced synethesia. Lexical synesthesia is characterized by one viewing achromatic words (black, white, grey words) and numbers as colored. Which color goes with which letter and/or number depends on the individual. One person might see the letter A as blue while another might see the same letter as purple. What remains the same, however, is that during synesthesia there is a binding of color to visual forms. It must be noted, though, that synesthesia is not limited to numbers and letters, rarely some individuals experience synesthesia with geometric shapes.

[[image:synesthesia.gif]]

==Procedure==

First, Palmeri et al (2002) tested WO's color associations with a list of 100 common monosyllabic words. He was tested twice with the sessions separated by more than a month. WO remained 97 percent consistent across the two trials. The researchers, then, tested WO's synesthesia elicited by local and global forms. For instance, researchers constructed the number five out of several smaller number twos. The synethesite could either see the small twos (local form) or the large five (global form)because each number, of course, had its own distinct color. In synesthesia from motion-defined stimuli, WO was able to identify the digit and saw the associated color for each of the digits. In synesthesia from binocularly defined stimuli, Palmeri et al. (2002) created individual digits by using random-dot stereograms, the digit was visible because of the disparity between the dots using 3D red/green glasses. Results from the stroop interference was significantly slowed for WO when the ink colors were incongruent with the synesthetic colors. In tests were WO had to pick out a 2 in a number of 5s, WO was able to pick out the 2 because it "popped out" to him. But when WO had to pick out the 8 among 6s, WO had a harder time because the synesthetic color for 6s and 8s was a similar blusih color. One conclusion from this paper is that "binding in lexical synethesia occurs during central visual processing and not during later more conceptual processing" (Palmeri et al, 4130). The results were consistent with previous research by Similek et al. and Ramachandran and Hubbard.

[[image:Syn2.jpg]]

[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KApieSGlyBk synesthesia video]

Witthoft and Winawer (2006)

2008-02-20T17:40:13Z

RKochis:

[[Category:Synesthesia Symposium]]
http://www.elchill.com/pictures/color_number_synesthesia.jpg

== '''Grapheme Synesthesia''' ==
In this study, a grapheme synesthete performed various tests to study the relationship between letters and colors. The patient, named AED, reported synestheic experiences in English and Russian, that seemed to originate with a toy played in her childhood. The refrigerator magnets from AED's childhood fostered a letter-color relationship that lasted throughout her life, and transferred to the Cyrillic alphabet when AED moved to Russia.

http://www.dkimages.com/discover/previews/742/48330.JPG

== '''Tests Administered on Synesthesia''' ==
AED chose the exact hue, brightness, and saturation of each color that paired with a particular letter. AED was presented in random order with the digits 0 to 9, and all 26 letters of the English alphabet, in both upper and lower cases. She performed a matching session on two separate occasions for consistency of the test's results. In a later test, she was also presented with 31 uppercase and 31 lowercase Cyrillic letters in the same manner.

http://brian.weatherson.org/checkershadow_illusion4med.jpg

== '''Results''' ==
The letter-color associations from AED's childhood refrigerator magnets influenced the colors chosen for the letters presented in testing. Similar looking or sounding Cyrillic letters were designated with colors similar to those given for English letters. The researchers concluded that from English to Russian, the case and font of a letter modulated the color experienced by the synesthete; similar letters were similar colors. This experiment demonstrates the flexibility of AED's [[synesthesia]], because she maintained the synestheic experiences from English to Russian. The study also shows the importance of early experience as a role in the development of [[synesthesia]], since the color experiences began during childhood as a result of playing with the refrigerator magnets. The researchers believed the magnets to be the originating inducer of the grapheme [[synesthesia]] experienced by AED.

http://www.astrolingua.spb.ru/ENGLISH/inter_eng.files/image008.jpg

Hancock et al. (2006)

2008-02-20T17:38:14Z

RKochis:

[[Category:Synesthesia Symposium]]

== Color-number association ==
In this study, a set of monozygotic twins were performing various tests to display their color-number association. This synesthetic association is shown by R and T, the twins, as naming certain letters as colors. Each specific letter had a different color scheme which had been highly consistent over the past 6 years. At the time of the testing, the twins were 12 years and 2 months old.

== Test Administered ==
The twins were given a test, the [[Stroop task]], which produces an effect known as the Stroop Effect. They were asked to name the color of the displayed digit on their screen as soon as it appeared. The Stroop Effect interfered with their reaction time of naming the correct color of the digit when the image appeared.

== Results ==
It was shown that the twins had a longer reaction time when the colors of the shown digit did not match their personal color-association of choice. This additional reaction time results from the twins photism, or production of a sensation of light or color to another sense organ. The term given for this such condition is called Associator [[Synesthesia]]. The researchers believe the twins' childhood jigsaw puzzle is the origin of their color-number association.

http://www.cs.keele.ac.uk/content/people/c.r.day/myhome/stroopsample.jpg

Ptito et al. (2005)

2008-02-20T17:37:25Z

Dvalverde:

[[Category:Plasticity Symposium]]

“Cross-modal Plasticity Revealed by Electrotactile Stimulation of the Tongue in the Congenitally Blind”

== Methodology ==
Subjects: 6 congenitally blind, five seeing controls, all with “normal” neurological states.
TDU (Tongue Display Unit) “Tumbling T” on computer screen, electrical pulses delivered to tongue depending on how much of the T is within the cursor
Training (over seven days)
Regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) measured prior to training and tests

== Results ==
Control subjects activated primary somatosensory and motor cortex in completing the test
Only blind subjects activated visual cortex

== Discussion ==
In blind subjects the visual cortex was stimulated just as much as in the normal vision subjects. The activation pattern in the blind following training shows remarkable similarities with that observed in normal seeing subjects during the performance of a visual orientation task” (611).

Cohen et al. (1997)

2008-02-20T17:37:02Z

Hmetzger: /* Method */

[[Category:Plasticity Symposium]]

The Title of the article was Functional Relevance of Cross-Modal Plasticity in Blind Human

== Hypothesis ==

The motivation behind this article was if there is a connection between the process of somatosensory information and the visual cortex in blind individuals. "It is unknown whether the visual cortex can process somatosensory information in a functionally relevant way." The hypothesis was that the visual cortex will be recruited by your somatic senses (touch) when doing discrimination tasks, such as Braille.

== Method ==

There were four groups of subjects, early blind people using Braille, early blind people testes using embossed letters, volunteers with 20/40 acuity using embossed letters, and a last group similar to the early blind group but with a higher magnetic stimulus.

Subjects were prompted to read different letter combinations. In the embossed group, there were 8 strings of 3 embossed letters, and in the Braille group, there were 5 strings of 5 Braille letters. Their fingers pass over the laser beam and their brains are stimulated. The laser's purpose is to induce Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation.
TMS is accomplished by a placing a figure-eight water-cooled coil on the scalp, which sends a small magnetic current to the brain and disrupts the magnetic field. This tests to see if there is a temporary change in reading letters. When the current fires, a loud clicking noise occurs. Stimulization was randomized among brain areas.

[http://www.http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v389/n6647/images/389180aa.tif.2.gif.com Laser Beam]

== Results ==

Both blind subject groups induced the most error when the mid-occipital cortex was stimulated. The subjects described somatosensory perceptions that were distorted, like there were missing dots or more dots in the Braille.
For sighted patients, the error occurred most in the S-M contra (Contralateral primary Sensorimotor Region). There were hand-jerking movements, but this did not lead to distorted somatosensory perceptions.

== Conclusions ==

The conclusion was that blindness from an early age can cause the visual cortex to be recruited in somatosensory processing.

Hamilton et al. (2000)

2008-02-20T17:36:42Z

Tmakin:

'''Alexia for Braille following bilateral occipital stroke in an early blind woman
(Hamilton et al. 2000)''' Tom Makin

'''Introduction'''''
Recent findings using functional imaging and neurophysiologic studies in early blind subjects have suggested that activation of the occipital cortex is associated with the reading of Braille. The study involves a woman who was blind from birth who sustained bilateral occipital damage following an ischemic stroke. Prior to the stroke, the women was an exceptional Braille reader and worked for the national radio station for blind people in Spain. After the stroke occurred, she was no longer able to read Braille but her somatosensory perception appeared to be otherwise functioning normally. This case study adds credence to the growing amounts of evidence for the recruitment of striate and prestriate cortex for Braille reading in early blind subjects. Studies have shown that an increase in regional cerebral blood flow in the striate and prestriate cortex in congenitally and early blind subjects during tactile (touch) tasks, whereas normally sighted individuals showed decreased levels of regional cerebral blood flow. Studies have also shown that when repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation is used to transiently disrupt the function of the occipital cortex, interference occurs with tactile reading of Braille in early blind subjects but not in sighted control subjects.
'''Case Study'''''
The focus subject of the study was a 63 year old blind woman who was blind since birth due to retrolental fibroplasia (A disease of the eye that affects prematurely born babies). Apart from being blind, the subject did not manifest any other long-term effects normally associated with premature birth. The woman developed normally and successfully and by the age of 22 was working for the national radio station for the blind in Spain, having already completed a bachelor’s degree. She showed exceptional ability in reading Braille and was able to read 120-150 symbols per minute. When deciphering the Braille characters, she used both hands and several fingers. At the age of 52, the subject developed adult onset diabetes, which was controlled with a degree of success with diet and hypoglycemic agents. However, there was no evidence of diabetic peripheral neuropathy that might have caused difficulties with Braille reading. The subject suffered bilateral occipital strokes and became alexic for Braille. Soon after the onset of the stroke, the subject complained that her fingers felt like they were “Covered by thick gloves” and she was unable to extract enough information from the Braille characters to deduct any meaning from what she was reading. However, she was able to distinguish between the roughness of surfaces and she was able to identify items on a board. The patient’s impairment of tactile information processing was limited to her Braille reading skill, and she had no other abnormalities in brain functioning according to a neurological examination and neurophysiological studies. These findings strongly support the idea that in this early blind patient, the occipital cortex was responsible for the decoding of spatial and tactile information required for Braille reading skill. Evidence indicates that cortico-cortico connections mediate the tactile perception of Braille in blind readers. Studies carried out on monkeys suggest that cortico-cortico networks which are normally reserved for visual processing of object and pattern discrimination may result in haptic (touch) discriminations in blind Braille readers. The findings in this patients’ case document the important role played by the occipital cortex in tactile Braille reading, in some subjects at least.
'''Conclusion/Take home messages'''''
Due to the lack of extensive testing on the patient, it was not possible to know for certain whether the patient’s predominant symptom was an inability to make sense of the Braille symbols she could feel or whether she had simply lost the tactile acuity that is required to detect Braille stimuli. However, due to the fact that she was able to detect other forms of tactile stimuli, it is possible that she suffered from a true alexia and that her perception of the stimuli was altered. As the patients’ other language abilities were still intact, it can be deduced that her language deficit was limited to perception of haptic symbols which lends support to previously reported cases of alexia in blind Braille readers. The findings from the case of this patient substantiate existing evidence that Braille reading in the early blind is an example of cross-modal plasticity whereby the occipital cortex is recruited for difficult tactile tasks, which enhances the sensory discrimination of blind subjects and makes Braille reading possible. The findings of the study lend further credence to the notion that the occipital cortex can be recruited to promote the function of tactile information processing among early blind subjects.

Sadato et al. (1996)

2008-02-20T17:36:24Z

Hbryan:

[[Category:Plasticity Symposium]]

Activation of the Primary Visual Cortex by Braille Reading in Blind Subjects

The paper explains that the primary visual cortex receives input from the eyes up through the geniculate nuclei. This area is not known to receive input from other sensory modalities. Therefore, Sadato wonders whether the PVC could have non visual functions. To determine whether or not the PVC has input from the samato sensory system, they use PET (Positron Emission Tomography). The following subjects studied were non blinded, genetically blinded, or blinded at an early part of his/her life.
To begin they study eight Braille readers. Eight character, non-contracted Braille letter strings were presented every 2.4 seconds with 41 words and 3 non words. Subjects are to read these words and utter “num” if they encounter non words and were to react only when they read real words. These subjects were compared with six other blind subjects and ten other sighted subjects in order to determine non-discrimination and discrimination groups. Generally, if both sides of the subjects are shown, the results can easily determine whether the primary visual cortex receives input from other sensory modalities.
These subjects were given one non-discrimination ‘sweep’ task and three discrimination tasks including the ‘angle’, ‘width’, and ‘character’ tasks. In the ‘sweep’ task, the subjects were to move their index fingers among a line of Braille dots without responding. In the ‘angle’ task, the subjects were presented pairs of Braille dots and were required to say “num” when they were the same. In the ‘width’ task, the subject were to respond when the vertical grooves (or width) of the Braille were the same. Last of all with the ‘character’ task, the subjects were given three upper case Braille letters and were to respond if all of these letters were the same. There was no mental or spatial imagery needed.
Through these tasks we learned that the non discrimination task didn’t activate the primary visual cortex. However, the discrimination tasks did not only because there were two more tests, but because of the variety of subjects. We also learned that selective attention does not affect the PVC the same way with blind subjects that it does with sighted subjects. Also, the congenitally blind subjects who performed Braille reading tasks showed the same activation of the PVC as other blind subjects.

Giraud et al. (2001)

2008-02-20T17:35:59Z

Emcdonald87: /* Summary */

[[Category:Plasticity Symposium]]

[[Image:P cochlear-noConsole.jpg]]

== Summary ==

When people who can hear listen to someone speak while looking at them, there visual cortex areas V1 and V2 are not activated. However, when people try to silent lip-read the auditory regions A1 and A2 are stimulated: indicating that the neighboring neurons of the auditory cortex are recruited and form a cross- model cooperativity that enables the brain to best interpret the visual input when there is a lack of auditory input.
== Cross-modal plasticity ==
is defined as plasticity, induced by rewiring the brain early in life, utilizes inputs of one modality to drive cortical areas that normally process information from a different
modality

In this study a kind of inverse of the previously mentioned finding was demonstrated. In this study the variable participants were deaf subjects who had learned the meanings of sounds after cochlear implantation (on average they had about 18 cochlear implants). Because the cochlear implants only enable the subject to hear and hardly detect fine discrepancies in sound (such as the difference between park and dark), they must rely on visual cues (like lip reading) to form associations between sounds and their meanings. [http://www.pbs.org/saf/1205/features/Interactive/channel22.htm What it is like to hear with cochlear implants]

In the experiment the visual regions V1 and V2 were active during auditory tasks when the cochlear subjects' eyes were closed. The amount of activation in these visual regions was directly related to the amount of time the subject had been living with cochlear implants, as well as the subject's proficiency in lip-reading. Furthermore, a control group of hearing patients did not demonstrate activation of visual regions when hearing verbal cues.

This study emphasizes two important aspects of neuroplasticity. One, that the brain will donate/recruit neighboring neurons to better interpret sensory input, and that this cross modality between neighboring regions of the brain is strengthened with experience (''neurons that fire together wire together).''

== Shorter Version of Summary ==
''Purpose'': This Study was to test the recruitment of their visual cortex when hearing verbal cues in cochlear implant patients. These patients were tested at different times after they got their implants.

''Results:'' The visual cortex was activated in trained cochlear implant patients where in the control group it was not active. They also figured out that the visual field was active do to specific stimuli. (1) they do so more than control subjects, (2) activation increases the longer they use an implant, and(3) they do so in a progressively stimulus-specific way.

----
Link to article: [http://blackboard.rollins.edu/courses/1/10301.PSY324.1.200801/content/_175427_1/Giraud_2001_Human_cochlear_implant_Neuron.pdf]

Pascual-Leone et al. (1995)

2008-02-20T17:35:34Z

Cmcfall:

[[Category:Plasticity Symposium]]

==Introduction==

Pascula-Leone, Wassermann, Sadato, and Hallett (1995) conducted a study to examine the representation of the motor cortical outputs in relation to a preceding activity. This study emphasized the importance of the correlation between precise timing and skill acquisition. More specifically, the current study focused exclusively on six blind participants, who were proficient in reading Braille, which requires the use of the tip of the index finger in order to discriminate between differential patterns of raised dots. The finger is subject to side-to-side movements “at a constant amplitude and speed to enhance this sensory discrimination by the pressure receptors in the skin” (Pascula-Leone et al., 1995). In previous studies, it has been found that the sensorimotor representation of the reading finger is enlarged in these blind, proficient Braille readers when compared to the same finger of the opposite hand, or with either finger in normal, sighted individuals.

The extent to which this modulation is enlarged would very well question the size and stability of these cortical representations, for it seems unlikely that such an enlargement would inhibit a proficient Braille reader from the use of his/her other fingers. This dilemma has led to the hypothesis that if this transformation in the motor cortical output is taking place during skill acquisition that requires the use of a specific body part, it should also be expected to reduce to a baseline after learning of the relevant task has occurred. Thus, the cortical representation gives rise to a dynamic, flexible system, whose activation is dependent upon the previous activity (Pascula-Leone et al., 1995). The flexibility of this system led the researchers in the current study to further investigate the stability as well as the size of this motor cortical output representation in proficient Braille readers.

[[Image:Braillealphabet.jpg]]
*'''''The Braille Alphabet'''''

==Method==

Six proficient Braille readers (four men and two women), with ages ranging from 44 to 57 years, participated in this study. These participants were all completely blind before the age of ten, learned to read Braille before the age of 13, and all used the right index finger for character recognition and the left index for line spacing. The experiment tested participants on two different Mondays, which were separated by one week. All Braille readers were tested two times per days (once in the morning and once in the evening). It should be noted that one of the days, in which the participant was tested, was considered to be a “work day,” where he/she read Braille for four to six hours. In contrast, the participants were required to request one of the two testing days off from work without notifying the experimenter, in which they read no Braille. This date was referred to as the “control day” and used as a means of comparison in statistical procedures following the experiment. Using the focal Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS), this instrument mapped the motor cortical outputs to the left first dorsal interosseous (FDI) as well as the right abductor digiti minimi (ADM) muscles (Pascula-Leone et al., 1995). Additionally, electrodes were connected to the participant’s finger muscles to evaluate the extent to which the brain areas connected to this cortical modulation were enlarged.

==Results==

The findings of the current study support the aforementioned hypothesis that the motor cortical representation is comprised of a dynamic and flexible system, whose organization is largely dependent upon the previous, relevant task. In other words, the current experiment was able to show significant changes in the motor cortical outputs that rapidly adjust to meet the demands and successful completion of the required task.

==Discussion==

This study highlights the developmental characteristic of plasticity in the brain. It shows that this phenomenon is ongoing and not limited to brain damaged individuals. For instance, skill acquisition requires the growth of new neurons that adapt to the relevant task. A case study reported in the article discussed a 54-year-old female, who was blind from birth, due to a rare eye condition called Retrolental Fibroplasia. This disease is most salient in infants and usually results from high concentrations of oxygen, which causes abnormal growth of the fibrous tissue behind the lens to take place (Pascula-Leone et al., 1995). Like the participants in the experimental design, she, too, was a proficient Braille reader, who showed an enlarged motor cortical representation of the right, reading hand (FDI) in contrast to that of her left FDI. After a period of nine months, this subject was tested again, and results from this experiment showed a significant reduction in the cortical output map of the right FDI. Stunned by this finding, researchers were notified of the participant’s recent vacation, in which she did not engage in any Braille reading. Consequently, she was asked to return to the laboratory at the end of work week and surprisingly, they found a “return” to the enlargement of the motor cortical output map that was documented in the first experiment.

Based on this reported case study, along with the findings of the current experiment, it can be concluded that skill acquisition relies on plastic changes in the neural network that must adapt to the demands of the new task. Proficiency in learning may very well rely on a rapid modulation of the cortical representation, which gives rises to a correlation between precision of time and skill acquisition. However, the development of this capacity has also been shown to consist of intracortical connections that become latent due to lack of exposure and practice of the relevant skill. Additionally, a point should be made about this latency, for on the days that did not involve Braille reading, these participants were still most likely engaging in tasks that required the use of similar body parts, and thus the motor cortical outputs were adjusted for these activities. This finding gives rise to the plastic component of the brain, in that the “rewiring” of this neural network results in a failure to rapidly respond after prolonged exposure to a task that requires the use of the same body parts (Pascula-Leone et al., 1995). While this study certainly highlights the underlying neural mechanisms of the plasticity phenomenon, studies involving non-proficient Braille readers should be investigated to assess the types of neural changes that take place following similarly delayed exposure to training.

==References==

Pascual-Leone, A., Wassermann, E. M., Sadato, N., Hallett, M. (1995). The role of reading activity on the modulation of motor cortical outputs to the reading hand in braille readers. Annals of Neurology, 38, 910- 915.

Gaser and Schlaug (2003)

2008-02-20T17:33:57Z

Jadunn:

[[Category:Plasticity Symposium]]

== Introduction ==

In Christian Gaser and Gottfried Schlaug's titled article "Brain Structures Differ between Musicians and Non-Musicians", the difference between the brain structures of musicians and non-musicians were studied. Musicians are different from non-musicians because they acquire many different skills such as motor and auditory skills that allow them to simultaneously read, hear, and produce music. In order to be skilled in playing an instrument, one must take time to practice to master certain techniques. Gaser and Schlaug found gray matter difference in three groups of people that they studied (professional musicians, amateur musicians, and non-musicians). They hope to find evidence to support their hypothesis that long-term skill acquisition and repetitive rehearsal of music skills cause structural adaptations in the brain.

== Method ==

In this study, right-handed, male, keyboard players were studied. There were 80 participants. 20 participants were professional musicians (worked full-time as a music teacher or a conservatory student and practiced 1+ hours a day), 20 were amateurs (played a musical instrument regularly, but music is not considered a career), and 40 were non-musicians(never played a musical instrument). All the participants were within the age range of 18-40 years of age. These individuals were matched on age and their verbal IQ scores.

== Procedure ==

High-resolution anatomical images of the whole brain were taken for each participant. The images were analyzed using VBM, which allowed for computational analysis for differences in gray matter volume in the brain. All the brain images were normalized, removing differences in size and shape. The gray and white matter was distinguished within the images. The volume of gray and white matter was calculated across the entire brain. The normalized brain images were averaged for non-musicians. Similar steps were used for the other groups. Then the groups were compared to each other. Calculations were done to find correlation between musician status on three levels.

== Results ==

The results show a positive correlation between the status of the musicians and the volume of gray matter (density of neurons) in certain brain areas. The volume in the sensorimotor cortex, auditory, and visuospatial regions of the cortex showed to be larger in professional keyboard players than amateur keyboard players and the nonmusicians and larger in the amateur keyboard players than the nonmusicians. The study also found no areas of the brain had exhibited decreased gray matter with increase in musicality of the participant.

== Discussion ==

The authors discuss plasticity as a contributing factor to the increase in grey matter in the musicians. Musical training could contribute to the structural changes in the brain. Motor areas change with specialization and practice of small movements with the hands and fingers when playing music. Similarly changes in the cerebellum could be contributed to cognitive skill learning. This is similar across the areas that were found to be increased in gray matter in the musicians. The functions of those brain areas were used often in musicians as they practiced their skills. Thus, more matter was used for those brain areas. The authors recognize that neural plasticity in humans may lead to use-dependent regional growth and structural adaptation in gray matter as a response to strong environmental demands during brain maturation. Since musicians repeatedly use brain areas to play their instruments they may exhibit use-dependent structural changes in their brains.

There are many factors that plays into the results found in Gaser and Schlaug's study. In addition to plasticity, the age in which the musicians started to play the keyboard affects the brain areas. This is because more grey matter is able to be produced at an earlier age. It is easier for neurons to specialize in the brain areas that are devoted to visual, auditory, and motor actions. The duration of practice time also affected the amount of grey matter produced. The more practice time used each day by the musicians had an impact on the volume of grey matter in each participant. White matter was strengthened by the years of practicing.

The setbacks in this study include studying only male, right-handed, keyboard players. It is possible that results would vary if it were to include, females, left-handed players, and musicians other than keyboard.

Some of the issues that rise from this study ask whether this extra grey matter found in musicians actually plasticity. Another issue is that inborn differences in the brain may contribute to the differences in brain matter. Perhaps the plasticity found in this study is simply due to the plasticity done during the musicians' early years of playing music.

== Image of Musician Brain ==

[[Image:Music_brain.gif]]

Some of the brain areas that have been found to be enlarged in musicians in morphometric studies based on structural magnetic resonance imaging. Red, primary motor cortex; yellow, planum temporale; orange, anterior part of the corpus callosum.

Hemiplegia

2008-01-17T13:48:01Z

Kmcastino:

[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]

== Overview ==

Hemiplegia describes the condition of a brain damaged individual who is unable to intentionally move parts of his or her body on the side opposite that of the brain damage. The affected hemisphere may be completely paralyzed or simply weakened. Other characteristics of hemiplegia include limited use of one hand, and/or balancing, speech and visual field problems. Hemiplegia usually occurs as a result of a loss of blood supply in the mid-cerebral artery due to aneurysm, hemorrhage, or clot. It may also be caused by a head injury, epilepsy, and/or tumor. In addition, damage to sub-cortical structures, such as the basal ganglia, may result in hemiplegia, since such structures are often served by the mid-cerebral artery. Hemiplegia is paralysis of one half of the body compared to Hemiparesis which is muscle weakness of one half of the body. Hemianopia is a loss of half of the visual field.

[[Image:Example.jpg]] http://www.humanillnesses.com/original/images/hdc_0001_0003_0_img0192.jpg

== Types of Hemiplegia ==

The types of hemiplegia include:

• facial hemiplegia – paralysis of one side of the face

• cerebral hemiplegia – caused by brain lesion which inhibits blood flow

• spastic hemiplegia – paralysis as well as convulsive movements of the affected side, occurs mostly in infants

• spinal hemiplegia – caused by lesions on the spine.

Alternating hemiplegia is a rare type of hemiplegia that usually develops in children during their first four years. Characterized by repeated, although temporary, incidences of paralysis on one side of the body. The paralysis can affect anything from limbs to facial muscles. One form of this particular type of hemiplegia has been found to occur largely at night while the child is awake. New research has shown that this form maybe linked to migraines. Children affected with this order do not usually have any other impairments, but serious cases have shown there to be mental impairment, difficulty with balance, excessive sweating, and seizures can occur. Although sleep temporary relieves the paralysis, it usually recurs upon waking up.

== Recovery ==

Hemiplegic Individuals are usually able to improve over time. Changes in bloody supply as well as blood loss result in cell death and loss of function in adjacent neurons. Most of these neurons are later able to return to a normal or near normal functioning level thereby allowing for the patient to have at least a partial behavioral recovery of function. Many patients have also proven to be adaptable by learning new ways of moving by using different brain regions.

== Anosognosia in Patients with Hemiplegia ==

Anosognosia, a condition in which patients are unaware of his or her illness and/or the effects of that illness, occurs in approximately fifty percent of hemiplegics. These patients do not believe they are paralyzed at all and often overestimate their abilities thereby making them less likely to regain independence after their strokes than non-anosognosia hemiplegics.

== Resources ==

*[http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/alternatinghemiplegia/alternatinghemiplegia.htm NIH site]
*[http://www.wisegeek.com/what-are-some-causes-of-hemiplegia.htm Online encyclopedia site]
*[http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/neuro/neuro03/web2/cstearns.html]
*Stirling, John. Introducing Neuropsychology
*Ogden, Jenni A. Fractured Minds: A Case Study Approach to Clincial Neuropsychology

Computed tomography

2008-01-17T13:45:25Z

Carson3816:

[[Category:Neuropsychological methods]]
<H1>Computed Tomography:</H1> 
<H2>When</H2> 
The very first step of the long process which scientists have taken to arrive at a CT scan starts with Alessandro Vallebona in 1930. He suggested taking a single slice of the body on radiographic film, which is known as tomography. The original prototype of a CT scanner was developed in 1971 and the first brain scan was performed in England at the Atkinson Morley Hospital in 1972. 
<H2>How</H2> 
The CT scan is an important tool used to supplement the use of x-rays and ultrasounds. It is used to create detailed images of the inside of an individual's body including their chest, abdomen, head, and other various parts of the body. These images can then be displayed on a computer using 3-d rendering techniques.
 

<H2>Use</H2> 
This is a medical method used to scan the inside of an object using a large series of two-dimensional x-rays taken around a single axis.
With the use of CT scans, doctors can determine a number of factors of a patient including brain activity, bone density and many others. One of the most important factors of using a CT scan involves looking for abnormalities in the brain such as unnatural growths or lesioned areas. 
http://www.radiology-equipment.com/instrumentpics/elscint.jpg

Reticular activating system

2008-01-17T13:41:58Z

DMCGAUGHEY:

[[Category:Brain areas]]

== Overview ==

[Image: http://www.benbest.com/science/anatmind/FigII21.gif]

The (ascending) '''reticular activating system''' (ARAS) or '''reticular formation''' is a structure that sits between the medulla oblongata and midbrain and branches into the brain stem. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reticular_activating_system] This system dictates the level of arousal or consciousness for the cortex. Sensory and motor impulses travel in between the cerebral cortex, the thalamus, and the RF; this process influences the degree of alertness (or sleep) in a person (Stirling 8) as well as circadian rhythms, respiration, and heartbeat patterns. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reticular_activating_system]

== Relation to ADD/ADHD ==

Since the RAS plays such a large role in motivation, activity level, and a person's ability to pay attention, it makes sense to look for a connection between this area of the brain and the origin of ADD/ADHD [http://newideas.net/adhd/neurology].

When the RAS is working properly, it serves as balance for all of the other parts of the brain that are also involved in these functions. However, if the RAS is under-stimulating other areas, there can be a distinct drop in the ability to learn, remember, and practice good self-control, which are all symptoms of ADD. The other possible scenario is over-stimulation which can lead to the restlessness and excessive activity associated with ADHD [http://newideas.net/adhd/neurology].

It's possible that the RAS malfunctions because of a norepinephrine deficiency and this problem is thought to be helped by Ritalin, which increases the level of this chemical in the brain. While this may work well for under-aroused ADD/ADHD, it can caused increased agitation in those who already have an overly-active RAS. The solution to this dilemma is often to prescribe a "norephinephrine antagonist," such as Prozac, which boosts serotonin and inhibitory responses [http://newideas.net/adhd/neurology].

== Motivation and the Yerkes-Dodson Law ==

The ARAS/RF is directly related to arousal and motivation which are, in turn, related to ability to perform tasks. How well these tasks can be performed is often represented by the inverted U-function (or the Yerkes-Dodson law) which depicts that performance peaks at a certain level of arousal and then deteriorates if that arousal continues to increase because of the associated stress and agitation of being too aroused [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-12694/motivation#362868.hook].

Dr. Harris talked to us about this is Stats II last semester when he was describing his early/late day arousal, caffeinated/non-caffeinated performance study. People who were at their peak arousal during a certain time of day performed best at that time (as expected), but their performance deteriorated as they consumed caffeine and actually became overly-aroused. However, caffeine could also be used to increase performance in those who weren't testing during their peak arousal times.

== References ==

[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-12694/motivation#362868.hook Motivation - The inverted-U function]

[http://newideas.net/adhd/neurology Neurology of ADHD]

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reticular_activating_system Reticular activating system]

Stirling, John. Introducing Neuropsychology. New York: Psychology Press, 200

Controlled oral word association task

2008-01-16T20:22:19Z

Tmakin: /* About */

[[Category:Neuropsychological methods]]
==About==
The Controlled Oral Word Association Task, also known as the COWAT, is a neuropsychological exam used to examine a person’s verbal fluency. It assesses the subject’s ability to spontaneously produce words beginning with a specific letter. The COWAT allows the subject one minute to produce as many words possible when given a letter that the word should start with. The most common combination of letters is FAS, but CFL and PRW are also used at times. The tester would say the letter F and give the subject one minute to respond with as many words beginning with F as possible. Then give them one minute to come up with as many words as possible beginning with the letter A, and then the same for the letter S. The sequence of letters creates difficulty formulating words for the list. A list should consist of about 15 words.

Different forms of this procedure exist. Most frequently used for assessing verbal fluency and the ease with which a person can think of words that begin with a specific letter.

Mini mental state exam

2008-01-16T20:17:10Z

Hbryan:

[[Category:Neuropsychological methods]]
The Mini mental state exam is a typical examination used by health care providers to determine one's overall brain function and cognition. Generally, the test is used to study Alzheimer patients, but others with a possible case of dementia or delirium have been known for taking this examination. The test consists of 30 questions with 11 parts. If a patient scores a total of less than 21-22 or a 0 on any of the parts, most likely the subject will be further questioned for dementia. For the most part with determining results, 21-22 correct is mild impairment, 9-10 is moderate impairment, and 9 or less is considered severe impairment.

This test can also measure affects of acupuncture and mood disorders in patients who suffer from Alzheimer's disease. Unlike the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, this MMSE only takes up to 10 minutes and can help up to six areas of cognition including "orientation, attention, immediate recall, short-term recall, language, and the ability to follow simple verbal and written commands" (Minddisorders.com).

The following link is an exact replica of a mini mental state exam:

http://classes.kumc.edu/som/amed900/assessment/AgingGame/MMSE.htm

Alexia

2008-01-16T20:15:35Z

Sriegsecker: /* '''Aquired Versus Pure''' */

[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]

== '''What Is It?''' ==

Alexia is an inability to read. It was first described by French neurologist Dejerine in 1892. He had a patient.

== '''Acquired Versus Pure''' ==

Acquired Alexia occurs after brain damage. It is sometimes associated with agraphia, which is the inability to write; however, they two can occur separately.

Pure Alexia is a form of Dyslexia in which patients do not read with a fast pace for word recognition. Usually the longer the word is, the longer it takes the patient to recognize what the word is. The damage in the brain occurs during development. Oddly, pure Alexia usually occurs in a patient with no impaired language or writing skills, and patients have no problem labeling objects. Spelling is intact in these patients, as well as comprehension, speech,
production and writing; however, they struggle to read what they have written.

== '''What Part of the Brain is Effected''' ==

Alexia without agraphia often occurs in the posterior part of the Corpus Callosum and Occipital Lobe, where lesions have formed after brain damage. These patients cannot read because the words in the left visual field transfer over to the right hemisphere, but because of the damage to the Corpus Callosum, the information cannot be transferred back over for comprehension. This can be referred to as a Disconnection Syndrome.

== Links ==

[http://gumc.georgetown.edu/departments/neurology/friedman/alexia.html Alexia]

Broca's area

2008-01-14T16:57:43Z

RKochis:

[[Category:Brain areas]]

[[Image:Broca.gif|right]]

== '''Location''' ==
The language area (located in the left hemisphere) of the brain is broken up into two parts: the [[Broca's area]] and the [[Wernicke's area]]. The [[Broca's area]] is named after [[Paul Broca]]. It lies in the opercular and triangular sections of the inferior frontal gyrus of the frontal lobe, and is said to be reasonable for motor speech. For more information on the [[Wernicke's area]], visit the [[Wernicke's area]] on this wiki.

== '''Parts''' ==

The [[Broca's area]] can be broken up into two parts: pars triangularis and pars opercularis.

*Pars triangularis is located in the front inferior frontal gyrus. This area helps people comprehend language. While most of the brain is symmetrical, this portion is bigger than its right-side counterpart. In short, this means that the portion of a person's brain used to comprehended language is larger than its right side counterpart.

*Pars opercularis is located in the back inferior frontal gyrus and covers part of the insula. This area facilitates the coordination between the speech organs, so that language can be produced. ''Note: There has been a link discovered between abnormal blood flow to this region and autism.''

== '''Damage to this Area'''==

For more information on this area, including notable patients, please check out [[Broca's aphasia]].

== '''Interesting Fact'''==

Joy Hirsch, a neuroscientist and head of the fMRI ([[Functional magnetic resonance imaging]]) lab at the Memorial Sloan-Kettering Hospital, studied bilingual adults who learned two languages as infants in comparison to those who learned two languages at age eleven. She discovered that those who learned two languages as infants have just one [[Broca’s area]], whereas those who learned two languages at age 11 had two separate areas, one [[Broca’s area]] for each.

Wernicke's aphasia

2008-01-14T16:56:14Z

Sriegsecker:

[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]

http://www.gazzaro.it/g/Language%20in%20the%20brain_file/broca_to_wernicke.gif
http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/d/d_10/d_10_cr/d_10_cr_lan/d_10_cr_lan_1c.jpg

Aphasia is a condition caused by neurological damage or disease in which a person's previous capacity to understand or express language is impaired. This may affect a person's ability to speak, listen, read or write.

Carl Wernicke (1848 - 1905) was a German physician, anatomist, psychiatrist and neuropathologist who studied the effects of brain disease on speech and language. He discovered that damage to the left posterior, superior temporal gyrus resulted in deficits in language comprehension and so this area of the brain is now known as Wernicke's area and the associated syndrome as Wernicke's aphasia.

Most cases of aphasia are caused by damage to the left posterior, superior temporal gyrus and this is the dominant hemisphere for approximately 95% of right handed people and 60 - 70% of left handed people.

When a person is affected by Wernicke's aphasia their speech is overflowing with words that do not convey the speaker's meaning. The pitch and rhythm of the speech sound normal but the words may either be used incorrectly or made up of words with no meaning.

It can be possible for children with moderate Wernicke's aphasia, following a head trauma or other neurological event to recover some language ability with the aid of speech therapy. However, when the damage is severe there is less chance.

Wernicke was also responsible for the idea that brain function is highly localised and could be mapped precisely and anatomically.

www.neurology.utoronto.ca, www.wikipedia.com, www.healthline.com, www.everything2.com

==Links==
[[Carl Wernicke]]

[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aVhYN7NTIKU Wernicke's Aphasia Video from class]

Visual agnosia

2008-01-14T16:55:55Z

Adipasqua: /* '''Defined''' */

[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]

== '''Defined'''==

Visual agnosia comes about from a lesion in the posterior occipital lobe and/or the temporal lobe of the brain, often caused by a stroke. Patients with visual agnosia have the inability to make sense of certain aspects of incoming visual stimuli. More specifically, visual agnosics often do not grasp the “bigger picture” of what they are looking at. For instance, many visual agnosics can describe the color, texture, or even the shape of an object, yet cannot say exactly what the object is. So while all of the correct visual stimuli is being received, the legion suffered by visual agnosics disallow them to recognize familiar objects and faces. Research on visual agnosia shows us that different parts of the brain compute different aspects of the same information retrieved from the retina.

== '''History'''==

In Goodale et al (1992), researchers postulated that two streams of vision give rise to this unique disorder. Basically, they believed that a dorsal stream was responsible for more primal aspects of vision (i.e. aiming movement), and a ventral stream was more responsible for the higher cognitive perceptions of the world. They dubbed these pathways the action stream and the perceptual stream, respectively.

Visual agnosics were then classically subcategorized as either one of two types:

(1) Apperceptive agnosia:
Individuals diagnosed with this form were able to identify parts of an object, just as the presence of a handle on a coffee cup, but were unable to identify the cup itself. In Benson & Greenberg (1969), Mr. S described a safety-pin as silver and shiny but could not recognize the object, nor could he recognize letters, numbers, or faces.

(2) Associative agnosia:
Individuals diagnosed with this form were able to copy objects, pick out objects similar to other objects, and even categorize them, but could still not identify what the object was. Researchers suggested that the problem was in linking perceptual information to semantic content.

The basic observed difference between the two was in the ability to copy drawings. The neurological basis of this comes from the extent of the damage to the ventral processing stream. Basically, apperceptive agnosics display damage to an earlier stage of the ventral processing stream, which is why associative agnosics have a better, although still impaired, ability to recognize objects.

== '''Patients'''==

DF- MRI scans showed damage to the lateral occipital cortex (a ventral stream structure). As expected, he could not describe objects’ size, shape, or orientation, yet demonstrated appropriate grasping motions when reaching for those same objects. Apparently, DF had a sort of underlying visual conception objects, but which did not reach conscious interpretation.

JL- could recognize objects in standard orientations but had trouble recognizing them when presented end-on.

AB- could draw/match/identify unusual objects, but was profoundly impaired at object/picture naming and describing functionality. This case implied semantic memory deficits.

HJA- could define a carrot when asked verbally, but could not identify a picture of one. Could name objects by touch that he could not identify verbally. This case implied intact memory but problems visually activating it.

== '''Modern View'''==

The previous three patients exemplify a more complicated picture of visual agnosia than that entailed in the classical definitions. More research on visual agnosia suggests that these classifications are too basic, as many patients have sensory deficits working in tandem with these perceptual deficits (i.e. blind spots called scotomas).

Although many modern theories have surfaced to help explain the disorder, Ellis and Young’s ideas merit special attention as they attempted to integrate all other models. They proposed a set of sequential stages in visual perception that lead to correct object recognition:
2D- ‘primal sketch’ includes information about boundaries, contours and brightness fluctuations, but not overall form.
2.5D- viewer-centered information about form and contour but not object constancy or perceptual classification.
3D- true object (rather than viewer) centered mental representation, independent of viewer’s position, specifying the real 3D shape of an object from any view, enabling true object recognition.

[[Image:Brain2.jpg]]

Synesthesia

2008-01-14T16:55:36Z

DMCGAUGHEY:

[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]

== Overview ==
'''Synesthesia''' is a phenomenon in which one type of sensory stimuli produces hallucinations in another sensory area. It is specifically defined as being, "a sensation produced in one modality when a stimulus is applied to another modality, as when the hearing of a certain sound induces the visualization of a certain color."[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/synesthesia]One of the most common forms of synesthesia is seeing letters or numbers in specific colors; this type is referred to as "grapheme-to-color" synesthesia.

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/21/SynaesthesiaRealEx.jpg
 An example of what grapheme-to-color synesthesia might look like.

== Grapheme-to-color Synesthesia ==
As noted, grapheme-to-color synesthesia deals with a person's visual perception of a number or letter and the subsequent involuntary perception of a color. This type of synesthetic experience tends to be relatively consistent over time (i.e. the same letters or numbers are perceived as being the same color) and because of the extent to which the visual system has been researched, it is the most commonly studied. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grapheme-color_synesthesia]

Specific colors perceived for certain letters or numbers tend to remain consistent across different synesthetes, such as the pairing of A with red and B with blue, which may also have something to do with how common both the letters and the colors are in everyday life. Patients with synesthesia are usually unaware that others are not experiencing the same things as others and while they do see colors projected into the space in front of them, they do not confuse these colors with "real" colors that may also be present and are aware of both colors simultaneously. Most synesthetes do not see their extra perception as a problem and sometimes even describe it as helpful, especially in regards to memory and association. In fact, certain computer technologies are even utilizing "artificial synesthesia" to make their programs more accessible. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grapheme-color_synesthesia]

== Studies about Synesthesia ==

In an analysis of the actual perceptual existence of synesthetic colors, Palmeri et al. (2002) determined that the phenomenon is indeed real and that it sometimes interferes with performance on certain tasks. An example would be the Stroop task, in which "subjects experience significant interference when naming ink colors of written words when those words are color terms incongruent with the ink color (Palmeri, 2006). A modified Stroop test, with words printed in ink colors that were different from W.O.'s perceived synesthetic colors, was administered to the subject. W.O. experienced that same type of interference as with an average participant, indicating that there was indeed synesthetic color-binding occuring. He was also tested for increased visual search efficiency from synesthetic colors.(Palmeri, 2006).

 http://www.lurj.org/vol2n1/synesthesia-fig1.jpg

*Visual Search Efficiency from Synesthetic Colors

The average participant would have to spend significantly longer identifying the figure within while a synesthete, with the ability to see the 2s as red, would have the image "pop out" at him.

In 2006, Peter Hancock conducted a study involving monozygotic twins and their perception of colors associated with certain numbers. While the twins didn't actually see the colors projected over the numbers, they showed remarkable similarity in the colors that they associated with given numerals. Hancock determined that their perceptions could be related both to a puzzle that they had played with when they were toddlers and to their genetic makeup as their mother also knew the "right" colors that that certain numbers should be (2006). A similar study by Witthoft and Winawer (2006) determined that people who are predisposed to synesthesia may also be "sensitive" to certain types of stimuli, such as the refrigerator magnets in this particular study, and may actual learn the grapheme-color associations that they will later have and that this "early-processing" finding can possibly be generalized across the synesthetic population.

== Disinhibited Feedback Model of Synesthesia ==
This model of synesthesia relates to the idea that sensory input travels along pathways in the brain and creates perceptions but that the impulses can also travel in the opposite direction and established ideas or pathways can influence earlier sensory systems. It is possible that this is also how "learned" synesthesia can exist. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_basis_of_synesthesia#Disinhibited_feedback]

== References ==

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_basis_of_synesthesia#Disinhibited_feedback Disinhibited feedback]

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grapheme-color_synesthesia Grapheme-color synesthesia]

Hancock, P. (2006). Monozygotic twins' colour-number association: A case study. Cortex, 42, 147-150.

Palmeri, T. J. et al. (2002). The perceptual reality of synesthetic colors. PNAS, 99(6), 4127-4131.

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synesthesia#Grapheme_.E2.86.92_color_synesthesia Synesthesia]

[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/synesthesia Synesthesia - definition]

Witthoft, N. & Winawer, J. (2006). Synesthetic colors determined by having colored refrigerator magnets in childhood. Cortex, 42, 175-183.

==External Links==

http://youtube.com/watch?v=KApieSGlyBk&feature=related

==Videos==
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=veoN1mh7RME

Just an interesting tidbit I learned in my Autism and Behavior Analysis class. Some people with Asperger's Syndrome tend to display Synesthisia as a symptom of the mental disability. I found that interesting and thought of this class.
~Hannah

Schizophrenia

2008-01-14T16:55:18Z

Ceisenbrandt:

[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]
== Schizophrenia (skiht-zo-FREH-nee-uh) ==

==Definition==
Schizophrenia is a thought disorder that affects about 1-2% of the human population each year. While it remains uncertain what the cause of the disease is, several studies suggest heredity to be a main component. There are two types of schizophrenia. Type I or acute schizophrenia involves hallucinogenic and delusional experiences along with a distortion of thought processes. Type II, or chronic schizophrenia is the most severe classification of the disorder, involving a reduction or elimination of normal mental and/or behavioral processes. A cure for the disease is yet to be found, however some antipsychotic drugs can be useful in controlling type I symptoms.

==History==
The first clinical descriptions of schizophrenia date back to as early as 1809. John Haslam and Philippe Pinel at this time released books on mental illnesses that contained the first complete reports of what is now know as chronic or type II schizophrenia. Haslam’s Observations on Madness and Melancholy documented the first historical description of schizophrenia in the English language.
Alois Alzheimer conducted the earliest known neuropathological studies of Dementia Praecox. The German psychologist published his findings in 1887. Alzheimer along with Nissi Franz collaborated with Emil Kraepelin in what is now known as the first multi-disciplinary research program. Kraepelin believed there was a specific biological cause for major psychiatric disorder; therefore their research was focused on this belief. Kraepelin was the first to divide the originally unitary concept of psychosis into two forms, manic depression (now know as bi-polar disorder), and dementia praecox (now known as schizophrenia). Kraepelin was the introduced his original concepts in the 4th edition of his book Lehrbuch der Psychiatrie in 1893. It was in this book that he defined dementia praecox as “a sub-acute, development of a peculiar, simple condition of mental weakness occurring at a youthful age.” He also discussed the importance of his method of recognizing patterns rather than grouping symptoms as a means for determining a diagnosis.
In 1908 Eugen Bleuler redefined dementia praecox and coined the term schizophrenia. Bleuler realized the condition was neither a ‘dementia’ nor did it only occur in young individuals (praecox meaning ‘early’), as Kraepelin had originally suggested. The term schizophrenia is a combination of the Greek words schizo meaning ‘splitting’ and phrenia meaning ‘mind’. The literal translation of the term is ‘suffering from a split mind.’ Bleuler provided a new perceptive of the disease in his 1911 book Dementia Praecox oder die Gruppe der Schizophrenien. Along with redefining schizophrenia, as it is known today, Bleuler also know for assisting in the discovery of Alzheimer’s disease. It should also be noted that Bleuler himself suffered from the psychological syndrome, Synesteasia.
From 1920s to late 1960s psychoanalysis dominated American Psychiatry causing a lack of research and development in the biological realm of Psychology. However, advances in technology in the 1970s allowed for new research in biochemistry, brain function and structure, genetics and the development of brain imaging techniques lead to a revival of studies on schizophrenia and other psychological disorders. Schizophrenia began to be referred to as a ‘brain disease’ and after years of neglect, the search for the causes of schizophrenia was once again a highly prioritized topic for research.
It is now a century after Bleuler introduced schizophrenia and there is still not a universally accepted definition for schizophrenia or a known cause for the condition. However, a standardized criterion for diagnosing the condition has been developed.

==Symptoms==
Schizophrenia can be described in terms of primary and secondary symptoms. Primary symptoms were those involved in indicating thought disorder and/or emotional blunting. Emotional blunting is Bleuler’s term describing the inability to experience normal emotions. Primary symptoms, more recently referred to as ‘negative’ symptoms, are those that cause an individual has an impaired relationship with the external world. Negative symptoms are evident in Type II schizophrenia, the most severe form.
Secondary, or ‘positive symptoms’, involve an individual experiencing hallucinations and/or delusional beliefs. A patient with primarily positive symptoms is described as having a Type I, or less severe case of the syndrome.
Positive symptoms are the most identifiable symptoms of schizophrenia in their expression. They are referred to as being ‘positive’ because the syndrome produces or ‘adds’ abnormal events such as experiencing a sensation in the absence of something to be sensed in the environment. Delusions or beliefs based on false information are also common symptoms along with uncontrollable thought patterns. Positive symptoms are considered a class of thought disorder and speech abnormalities that take form in an inability to make associations in thought processes. A schizophrenic experiencing speech abnormalities may often make illogical conversation in which the connections between ideas are disjointed or non-existent, at least to the listener. A speech patient’s conversation may come out as nothing but an incomprehensible mixture of words. A patient may also jump to conclusions or ahead of their own thoughts as a result of following their own strange thought processes. Patients experiencing thought disorders often provide complex responses in the form of rambling to simple ‘yes or no’ answer questions.
Negative symptoms are those involving the reduction or in some cases, elimination of normal mental or behavioral processes. Negative symptoms are evident in Type II schizophrenics. Dr. Nancy Andreason created a classification system of the predominant symptoms of Type II schizophrenia. These symptoms include: poverty of speech or Alogia, restricted affect and diminished emotional range, diminished interest in environment and reduction in curiosity, diminished sense of self purpose, and diminished interest in social interaction with others.

==Diagnosis==
In order for a patient to be diagnosed with Schizophrenia 5 major criteria must be present from 2 groupings: core symptoms and course criteria. A 3rd grouping also affects the diagnosis is the exclusion criteria, if any factor from this grouping is indicated by the patient schizophrenia cannot be diagnosed.
The core symptoms criterion requires the presence of extreme disruptions of thought, perceptions, emotions, and motor behavior. These symptoms must occur for a significant portion of a one-month time period. These disruptions may take form of delusions and/or hallucinations and must occur with disturbances of speech or motor activity, and/or a disturbance of emotional responses.
The course criterion requires symptoms and behavioral aspects to follow a specific pattern during a certain time sequence. This time sequence differs depending on the system used for diagnosis. The course criterion requires the core symptoms to be associated with impaired functioning in the patient’s daily life.
The exclusion criterion describes conditions that prevent a diagnosis even if the core symptoms and course criteria are present. For example, a patient with marked disruptions of mood would qualify them for a mood disorder rather than a diagnosis in schizophrenia. A diagnosis can also not be made if an external physical cause is what triggers the mental disturbance. For example, excessive drug use and neurological conditions such as epilepsy may elicit schizophrenic-like symptoms.
Two of the most common systems used for diagnosis are the ICD and DSM-IV. The International classification of diseases or ICD was created and is maintained by the World Health Organization and is currently on its 10th edition.
Another system commonly used for diagnosis measures is the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual or DSM-IV. If the conditions stated in this manual are not met a patient should not receive a diagnosis.

==Causes==
While the cause of schizophrenia remains uncertain, there are several widely supported theories. Two dominating perspectives as to what might cause schizophrenia are a biological hypothesis and a collaboration of several neuropathological hypotheses.

Biological Hypothesis:
One of the most prevalent theories for the cause of schizophrenia is heritability. Numerous studies provide evidence that genetics may be behind the condition. The evidence behind this theory comes primarily on epidemiology, family studies, adoptive studies, and twin studies. Studies have shown 10% of children who have a single schizophrenic parent develop the condition, while 50% of children from parents both suffering from the disease manifest schizophrenia in its more severe form. Twin studies provide the most insight into how big a role genetics plays in developing schizophrenia. It is difficult to prove in that similar familial environments could also have an affect on the development of the condition. However, twin studies have provided important evidence to support the heritability theory. 33-78% of monozygotic twins both develop schizophrenia while only 10% of dizygotic twins develop the disease. Dizygotic twins have the same likelihood to develop schizophrenia as any offspring of a schizophrenic case. However, studies have shown monozygotic or identical twins are much more likely to develop the condition. In edition, studies have provided evidence that monozygotic twins raised in separate familial environments are more similar in personality than monozygotic twins raised in the same familial environment. A study has not yet been conducted of a pair of monozygotic twins suffering from schizophrenia, but it could provide the information necessary to prove or disprove this theory. While many researchers are convinced heritability plays a factor in the development of schizophrenia, the large body of evidence has supported no singe locus model of transmission.
[[Image:Schizophrenia.jpg]]

Neuropatholigical Hypotheses:
The most prominent experts in the field of schizophrenia cannot come to agree upon the interpretations of almost every neuropathological finding. Therefore, a cause for the syndrome has not yet been distinguished. However, studies have provided some insight into what the most probable causes could be. There are two ways of gaining neurological evidence. The first is referred to as macroscopic in which the larger structures of the brain are observed and measured. While histological, the second means, involves microscopically examining the structure and neurochemistry of the types of cells in the brain. For example, a histological study of the brain may involve the study of neurons in the brain.
In 1999, Paul J. Harrison published an article in the scientific journal, Brain that provided a comparison of various claims to the cause of schizophrenia. In this article, Harrison provided a list of macroscopic and histological findings. Harrison’s list is presented in decreasing level of certainly. For example, the first finding listed has the most neuropathological evidence behind it.
Strongest macroscopic findings:
1. Enlarged lateral and third ventricles of the brain, the ventricles are the spaces between the lobes where cerebrospinal fluid flows.
2. Decreased cortical volume or having a smaller, lighter brain.
Enlarged ventricles and decreased cortical volume has been noted in people’s first schizophrenic experience, suggesting that the brain abnormalities are not caused by any sort of treatment for the disease and are not caused by the progression of the disease because they are present at the onset of schizophrenia. This supports the notion that people who develop schizophrenia have structurally abnormal brains before experiencing schizophrenic symptoms.
3. The temporal lobe loses more volume than other areas of the brain
4. Decreased thalamic volume, major relay center for sending messages in the brain has been found to be smaller and lighter in those with schizophrenia.
5. The shrinkage of the brain seems to occur in the ‘gray’ matter of the brain that is mostly made of neurons
Strongest Histological findings:
1.Absence of gliosis as an intristic feature
2. Smaller cortical and hippocampal neurons
3. Fewer neurons in dorsal thalamus
4. Reduced synaptic and dendrite markers in hippocampus
5. Misdistribution of white matter neurons
6. Entohirnal cortex displexia
7. Cortical or hippocampal neuron loss
8. Disarray of hippocampal neurons

== Links ==

[http://www.medicinenet.com/schizophrenia/article.htm Schizophrenia]

Prosopagnosia

2008-01-14T16:54:57Z

Ccook:

[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]
'''Prosopagnosia'''

== '''Definition''' ==
----

'''Prosapagnosia''' is defined as the inability to perceive faces, or ''face blindness''. It is a type of ''agnosia'', a term used in neuropsychology to mean ''lack of knowledge'' about a particular subject. The disorder has nothing to do with actual visual blindness, as the person is usually able to view everything else normally. It is a perceptual problem that prohibits people from being able to put the image of the face together as a whole. This rare disorder varies in intensity. One person with the disorder may not be able to recognize whether two pictures are of the same face or not, while another patient may affect recognition of one's own family members. In a most severe example, a person may no longer be able to recognize himself in a photograph or the mirror. These skills do not improve with practice or familiarity. Usually it is not limited to the recognition of individuals, but also of more basic facts such as gender and facial expression. The picture below gives the impression of what a person with prosopagnosia might see when looking at another person's face.

[[Image:prosopagnosia_03.jpg]]

== '''Prosopagnosia and the Brain''' ==

----

Through the use of many studies on the brain, including PET scans, it seems that prosopagnosia relates to damage to a particular part of the brain. There is an area on the right side of the brain that specializes in perception of people. These area, the ventral regions of the occipital and temporal lobes, have been found to be involved in perception of faces. It is suggested that posterior regions help to put together the individual characteristics of the faces, while the area in front of it aids in identification and memory of bibliographic information of the person to whom the face belongs.

In some cases, however, it is associated with bilateral damage, or damage on both sides of the brain. If the visual cortex is damaged on both side, prosopagnosia is not likely to be the only disorder. More generalized agnosias may occur, including the inability to recognize objects. This inclusion of the right brain extends from a lack of knowledge about faces, to a generalized lack of knowledge about objects in general.

Below the route of facial perception is described through the path of various parts of the brain. The dorsal route is intact, but in people with prosopagnosia, the ventral route is disturbed.

[[Image:Ellis-fig3.jpg]]

== '''Case Study''' ==

----

At age 24, Michael was involved in a motorcycle accident where he hit a tree and was immediately hospitalized. Initially becoming "cortically blind," or blind because of damage to his occipital lobes and not to his eyes themselves, he slowly began to retrieve his vision after 17 months, beginning with the ability to see lights and finally recognizing letters and objects. His ability to recognize faces, however, remained lost. Along with a great deal of other symptoms and problems, prosopagnosia is something that Michael deals with every day. This is mainly due to the amount of dead tissue in his occipital lobes, most of which is concentrated in the right side of the brain. On top of inability to recognize faces, he had no ability to recognize visual patterns and certain objects. For example, he could copy a drawer of, say a turtle, if he did it area by area, but could not recognize what he had drawn. He could, however, recognize objects through tactile methods, or touch only. Michael became color impaired after the accident as well.

Michael suffered some severe social consequences from his prosopagnosia. As one could imagine, he was very frustrated with his syndrome, a lot of which was due to his memory deficiency after the accident. Obviously Michael's brain damage had an unfortunate impact on his daily life, and this provides a bit of perspective on a person suffering from prosopagnosia.

== '''Further Information''' ==

----

The following link is to a site built by a woman with prosopagnosia. She describes in basic terms what she deals with on a daily basis, and some of the social consequences of the disorder.

http://www.prosopagnosia.com/

This link brings you to the site for the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, which provides some explanations about dealing with the disorder.

http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/prosopagnosia/Prosopagnosia.htm

The following link is to a YouTube video providing a summary of the disorder.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZogbIvdgfzQ

== '''References''' ==

----

The "further information" as well as the following resources were used for generating the information on this page.

Ogden, Jenni A. (1996). Fractured Minds. Oxford: New York.

Stirling, John. (2002). Introducing Neuropsychology. Psychology Press: New York.

Phantom limbs

2008-01-14T16:54:36Z

Cmcfall:

[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]

==Overview==

Phantom limbs is a disorder of peripersonal space, in which deficits in the spatial boundary of the visual receptive fields are observed. Most notably, it refers to a sense of outstanding and often painful feeling (98% of reported cases) from an amputated body part, such as the arms or legs, which is usually most pronounced following surgery and becomes lessened overtime (Silvano, Berger, Keith, & Brodie, 1974-1986). These sensations are not limited to pain, but also include touch, temperature, wetness, and movement that arise from the no longer existent body part (Stirling, 65). It should also be noted that this phenomenon is not metaphorical in nature, but rather a sensation that is actually felt by such individuals. In fact, the realistic nature of phantom limbs is such that a patient may actually forget that a body part has been removed and attempts to use the missing limb have been widely reported (Stirling, 66). The patient also tends to exhibit a greater conscious awareness of the phantom than the opposite, intact limb (Silvano & Reiser, 1974-1986). The three most common types of the phantom are: a mild, tingling feeling; a momentary “pins and needles” sensation; and painful feelings such as “twisting,” “burning,” “itching,” and “pulling” (Silvano & Reiser, 1974-1986).

As mentioned, most individuals experience pain that can be modified or reduced via surgical procedures, but these operations have often failed to fully eliminate such displeasure (Silvano & Reiser, 1974-1986). The ineffectiveness to diminish painful phantom limb experiences was further explored as anecdotal evidence was collected to provide insight about the underlying mechanisms of this phenomenon. Moreover, case reports have shown that stimulation of body regions aligned with the cortical receptive fields adjacent to the amputated limb can elicit the phantom experience (Stirling, 66). [[Vilayanur Ramachandran]] explained the effects of such experiences by proposing that sensory inputs travel to both target and neighboring regions and that normally, the adjacent regions are inhibited by direct inputs to the region. However, when these inputs are absent, commonly referred to as lateral disinhibition, the nearby regions now receive the cortical inputs, thereby evoking the phantom limb phenomenon (Stirling, 67). While [[Vilayanur Ramachandran]]’s assertion alone cannot account for all aspects of the experience, these findings not only highlight the need to establish methods of recovery, but they also serve as reminder that the developmental aspect of plasticity can still occur, even in mature adults (Stirling, 68).

[[Image:phantomlimbpain.gif]]

==Neural Plasticity==

[[Vilayanur Ramachandran]] (1993) reported plastic changes that were observed in the visual cortex of the brain and referred to this occurrence as the “filling in” phenomenon, in which the loss of visual abilities (e.g. scotomas) caused rapid changes in the reorganization of the primary visual receptive fields. These findings led the researcher to question similar effects of other adult somatosensory pathways, including touch and hearing. Earlier studies found that after long durations of amputation, the cortical area initially corresponding to the hand was now replaced by sensory input from the ipsilateral face region. Thus, the results of these studies coupled with Ramachandran’s previous experiment generated the remapping hypothesis, which asserts the ability of the receptive fields to be temporarily expanded to proximal areas due to the “unmasking” of pre-existing neural connections, rather than the development or sprouting of new ones ([[Ramachandran]], 1993).

Results of the study on individuals with phantom limbs, revealed a one-to-one correspondence between points on the patient’s fingers as well as on the face, which were not randomly represented, but observed on the lower face region and the area near deafferentation ([[Ramachandran]], 1993). Additionally, it was further suggested that complex sensations distal from the region of amputation could be referred, which occur at a rapid rate of reorganization. Thus, modality-specific “rewiring” can effectively occur even after short periods of stimulus deprivation, thereby supporting Ramachandran’s hypothesis that phantom limb experience arises from spontaneous activity of tissues in the face and those near the amputated limb ([[Ramachandran]], 1993). It was also thought that reafferance signals are combined with motor commands that are then sent to the muscle(s) of the phantom limb and to some degree, from neuromas, or tumors that are comprised of nerve tissues ([[Ramachandran]], 1993). The information from these sources is lastly processed in the parietal cortex, which gives rise to the experience, where an image of the nonexistent body part persists. However, in response to the researcher’s own assertions, extensive studies investigating the biological, pre-existing neural connections have failed to find significant results that would support the “unmasking” hypothesis [[Ramachandran]] proposed, thereby giving greater rise to the sprouting hypothesis. If such sprouting were the case, these growths would require precise and rapid cortical reorganization to enable topography to take place as well as the occurrence of complex sensations such as “gripping,” or “trickling” ([[Ramachandran]], 1993). While this study proved to be somewhat inconclusive in that the neither of the competing hypotheses was firmly established, the rapid changes in the topographical maps implied the need for future revision of the stable or unchanging views of cortical receptive fields.

Later, [[Ramachandran]] and Rogers-Ramachandran (2000) further explored the remapping hypothesis and indeed found that unmasking of pre-existing neural connections can be referred even hours after amputation. Similar to the results in the abovementioned study, an earlier experiment on adult monkeys revealed the topographic reorganization when a stimulus was presented to a side of the face that corresponded to the hand in the cortical somatotopic map. Following this finding, magnetoencephalographic experiments showed similar results in the adult human cortex, in that the referred feelings were modality-specific ([[Ramachandran]] & Rogers-Ramachandran, 2000). For instance, sensations that were delivered to the lower face region were also felt on the phantom limb. In addition, when other parts of the body were similarly stimulated, these sensations were not as pronounced on the phantom; however, evidence showed that a second topographical map was constructed close to the missing body part. Therefore, these results provide evidence for the remapping hypothesis, where sensations occur as a result of the unmasking of pre-existing neural connections, as shown in the rapid topographical reorganization; a finding that was previously challenged ([[Ramachandran]] & Rogers- Ramachandran, 2000).

This study also highlighted the role of the conscious experience in brain activity, in that patients initially felt sensations in both the hand and the face, apparently due to the separate activation of these two regions. However, overtime the patient would begin to experience a feeling on the just the face when the hand was touched. This gives rise to a possible “cortical overshooting” during mapping reorganization, so that sensation from the hand is suppressed or masked ([[Ramachandran]] & Rogers-Ramachandaran, 2000). Finally, the researchers reported Mirror box experiments, where a patient would place the intact body part in a location that corresponded to the represented limb. Thus, the visual illusion that the phantom limb had been resurrected provided visual feedback that enabled the troubled patient to relieve any reported displeasure that had been previously experienced ([[Ramachandran]] & Rogers-Ramachandran, 2000). The importance of these studies showed the interaction between visual and somatosensory modalities, which deal with back-and-forth exchanges, rather than the initially proposed hierarchical neural model. Furthermore, these mirror image studies implied that body image is a malleable, internal construct that is also subject to change, despite its seemingly rigid and fixed appearance ([[Ramachandran]] & Rogers-Ramachandran, 2000).

==Body Image==

Body image refers to the internal and actual or idealized image that manifests itself in ways that shape an individual’s personality, self-esteem, and overall psychosocial well-being. In phantom limbs patients, the cerebral representation can be reorganized, so that the phantom is modified and sometimes even dissipated. Often times though, amputation can lead to a distorted body image that is accounted for in emotional, perceptual, and psychosocial reactions (Silvano & Reiser, 1974-1986). This sudden change not only leads to a misrepresentation of the self, but also arouses varying levels of anxiety in such patients. Additionally, denial is a common defense mechanism that cannot only result in failure to report a phantom limb, but also an inability to reorganize an individual’s body image, such that recovery and rehabilitative measures cannot be effectively taken. Consequently, this maladaptation can subsequently lead to embodiment of psychopathological characteristics, which include, but not are not limited to, depression and magical thinking (Silvano & Reiser, 1974-1986). Therefore, attempts to modify the phantom limb can only be successful depending on the relational meaning of the body part to the patient. In other words, if an amputee is unwilling to accept the present body structure, as is, this perceived defect is fully capable of interfering with motivation and recovery as a result of this disturbance (Silvano & Reiser, 1974-1986). Therefore, the unstable nature of a patient’s body image should be fully accounted for in evaluation and treatment of such patients.

[[Image:Phantomlimbs1.jpg]]

==Treatment==

Successful treatment of the disturbed body image arising from the phantom limb phenomenon is dependent upon the current body of knowledge, which unfortunately, has been inadequately implemented in the present social system (Silvano & Reiser, 1974-1986). The ways in which social life is constructed can therefore profoundly affect the self-esteem, or the manner in which a patient perceives him/herself. In cases where the social structure has failed to provide supportive measures, it is vitally crucial for rehabilitative services to appropriately develop procedures that allow for ego enhancement (Silvano & Reiser, 1974-1986). The patient should be made aware of the most commonly reported phantom experiences, and fears and desires about the amputated body part should be addressed. Family, friends, and other environmental influences should also be expected to appropriately respond to such patients, for several studies have shown the detrimental effects that phantom experiences can have on body image and consequently, personality and overall psychological structure and functioning (Silvano & Reiser, 1974-1986). Therefore, these individuals should act as support systems, upon which the patient can reliably depend.

In patients who experience chronic pain, the goal of outside resources is to adopt methods of behavioral reinforcement, or operant mechanisms, which can either, prolong or reduce the individual’s expression of pain. These strategies are referred to as Fordyce’s basic principles of behavior modification (Silvano et al., 1974-1986). The approach here is to alter the patient’s behavior such that he/she can focus on engagement in other areas that enable him/her to withdraw from the reported chronic pain and exert more effortful control over these undesirable experiences. While the aforementioned suggestions regarding this phenomenon have been widely reported, the primary emphasis should remain on the reactions of amputated patients to ensure maximum recovery and restoration of a healthy body image (Silvano et al., 1974-1986).

In similar cases of chronic pain, other forms of therapy can be taken. For instance, Sympathetic Blockade refers to the intravenous infusion of guanethidine by closing off circulation. Shortly after, the patient tends to feel less pain that can sometimes result in complete recovery, but should be repeated to guarantee permanent relief (Silvano et al., 1974-1986). Other approaches to these seemingly endless periods of pain include surgical sympathectomy and chemical sympathectomy, in which destruction of the nerves in the sympathetic system can increase blood flow and reduce pain (Silvano et al., 1974-1986). Similarly, electrical stimulation, intense vibration of the stump, and injections of hypertonic saline have also shown to relieve pain, with duration of success remaining largely dependent upon the patient (Silvano et al., 1974-1986).

Finally, the above mentioned study conducted by [[Ramachandran]] and Rogers-Ramachandran (2000) confirmed the temporary, and in some cases permanent, elimination of pain in phantom limbs patients in Mirror box experiments. As previously noted, the ability to project an individual’s intact limb to a corresponding location on the mirror creates the visual illusion of the reported phantom. This visual feedback, in turn, provides these patients with the ability to relieve unwanted sensations (e.g. clenching) pertaining to the non-existent body part ([[Ramachandran]] & Rogers-Ramachandran, 2000). However, Mirror box experiments are susceptible to “placebo effects” in relation to reduction of pain, and so it is evident that studies of double-blind control subjects should be conducted. Nonetheless, whether or not this procedure produces favorable outcomes, it should still be noted that the use of visual feedback enables patients to not only see, but also feel corresponding movements in the reported phantom, which therefore gives rise to the conscious experience of this phenomenon ([[Ramachandran]] & Rogers-Ramachandran, 2000). Disturbances in an individual’s body-image and/or experience of chronic pain have been largely observed in such patients; however, the extent to which these reactions are reported provide profound implications for which therapy methods will produce the most effective results (Silvano & Reiser, 1974-1986).

==References==

Ramachandran, V. S. (1993). Behavioral and magnetoencephalographic correlates of
plasticity in the adult human brain. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 90, 10413-10420.

Ramachandran, V. S., & Rogers-Ramachandran, D. (2000). Phantom limbs and neural
plasticity. Archives of Neurology, 57, 317-320.

Silvano, A., & Reiser, M. F. (Eds.). (1974-1986). American handbook of psychiatry: Organic disorders and psychosomatic medicine (2nd ed., Vols. 1-8). New York, NY: Basic Books, Inc., Publishers.

Silvano, A., Berger, P. A., Keith, H., & Brodie, H. (Eds.). (1974-1986). American
handbook of psychiatry: Biological psychiatry (2nd ed., Vols. 1-8). New York, NY: Basic Books, Inc., Publishers.

Stirling, J. (2002). Introducing Neuropsychology. New York, NY: Psychology Press.

Parkinson's Disease

2008-01-14T16:54:18Z

Tmarx310:

[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]
[[Image:WorldPDSymbol s.gif|thumb|The worldwide symbol for Parkinson's Disease]]
==Overview==
Parkinson's disease, otherwise known as PD, is the second most common neurodegenerative disease. The disease was named after its discoverer, James Parkinson in 1817. Parkinson's disease begins to show side effects when about 80% of the nerve cells in the substantia nigra, part of the basal ganglia, die and become impaired. These cells are responsible for the production of dopamine, a neurotransmitter that regulates our motor coordination and functioning. The substantia nigra is incharge of dopamine production that is carried through two different pathways "direct" and "indirect". The direct pathway facilitates movement. In PD, this area usually becomes less active, whereas, the indirect pathway becomes more active, in charge of inhibiting unwanted movements. The disease can be considered "idiopathic", meaning that it has no known cause, or "secondary", meaning it results from genetics, the post encephalitic epidemic, head trauma, MPTP, or Lewy bodies in the brain. Patients with PD are described as, "intellectually alert humans, in a disobedient body". Parkinson's is a terminal illness, but is a very slow process, so it is often that people die of unrelated illnesses before PD takes their lives.

Image:http://www.abc.net.au/health/library/img/parkinsons_diag.jpg
http://www.about-dementia.com/articles/images/ParkinsonsDopamine.jpg

==Symptoms==
*'''Tremors'''
**Dystonias, or persistent muscle spasms, are common during resting states and usually not present in deliberate movements. These tremors cause frequent trembling of the limbs.
*'''Slowness of Movement'''
**Bradykinesia, the slowed ability to initiate and maintain movements, is a common side-effect in PD patients. Repetitive movements such as tapping and clapping are frequent in their behavior. Once movement is initiated, most of the time patients are able to continue the movement fluidly, until they become distracted or interrupted. This slowness also is exhibited in their coordination, they are unable to move their limbs quickly, or carry out planned motor tasks. Patients try to find "tricks" to help them initiate movements, external cuing. For example, a pattern on the floor or hearing music sometimes helps patients to start their motions. As PD progresses, it can eventually lead to Akinesia, or the inability to move spontaneously at all.
*'''Rigidity'''
**Muscular rigidity is a symptom common of PD. Cogwheel rigidity, a type of stiffness characterized by jerks associated with forcing a limb to move, is another common indicator of this disease. The muscles cycle through loose, then tense, then loose, then very tense phases, making the patient very tired. A "masked" appearance to the face makes the patient seem emotionless because of their inability to control their facial muscles. When muscles tense simultaneously, the sensation can be very painful.
*'''Difficulty with Balance'''
**Patients can experience trouble walking. An unbalanced gait can lead to a shuffling walk. This shuffle is typical of Parkinson's patients and some experience tripping and falling frequently because of it.
*'''Difficulty with Speech'''
**Some Parkinson's patients are atonal and hard to understand. Bradykinesia plays a role in language production, as well, making it difficult to speak. Patients sometimes have problems with excessive drooling and trouble swallowing.
*'''Sleep Complications'''
**PD patients have problems falling asleep, staying asleep, restless leg syndrome, and sometimes nightmares as a result of medications or the actual disease itself. Also, a possible reason for sleep complications could be because of a patients inability to toss and turn to make themselves comfortable.
*'''Depression'''
**Depression has been noted to be a symptom associated with PD for 25-40% of patients because of the damper the disease has put on their life and side-effects of the medications.
*'''Cognitive Executive Dysfunctions'''
**Because dopamine regulates the prefrontal cortex, problems associated with frontal lobe functioning can sometimes occur. Dementia is a symptom, but not as common as the others. Patients that experience these executive dysfunctions exhibit difficulties planning, organizing, carrying out cognitive and motor plans, trouble completing a Rey Complex Figure test, difficulties with the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task, problems with spontaneous recall of memory problems without external cues, and bradyphrenia. Bradyphrenia is a condition in which the patient has a slowed reaction time and slowed thinking, although this could be associated with their motor deficiencies.
*'''Skin Sensations'''
**From time to time, PD patients can experience a tingling feeling in their limbs.
==How Parkinson's Disease is Assessed==
Doctor's typically use the Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale (1989)to assess patients.
[http://www.mdvu.org/library/ratingscales/pd/updrs.pdf Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale]
==Treatments Available==
*'''Physical and Intellectual Exercise'''
Physical and intellectual exercises are strongly encouraged by specialists. Patients that participated in physical therapy and massages showed increased flexibility, range of motion, and balance. Patients that exercised their brain by doing intellectual tasks, showed slower rates of dementia.
*'''Medications'''
The medications given for PD are targeted to reduce the symptoms of the disease and increase dopaminergenic input into the two pathways of the basal ganglia motor loop, direct and indirect.
*Sinemet is a common medication used to treat the symptoms. It is a hybrid of carbl dopa, a medication allowing dopamine to pass through the blood brain barrier with reduced side-effects, and L-dopa the precursor of dopamine. The problem associated with this medication is that most patients develop intolerance to it 5 to 10 years after taking it. The medication only lasts for two hour periods and patients experience "on/ off" phases associated with it. Dyskinesias, or tics, are frequently associated with the "on" phase, while in "off" phases patients can exhibit akinesia.
**Amantadine is another medication sometimes used for PD patients. This is an antiviral medication used to potentiate the effects of dopamine in the brain.
**Catechol-o-methyltransferase, also known as COMT, is another drug used to treat PD. It is an monoamine oxidase inhibitor, meaning that is prevents the breakdown of dopamine in the brain.

http://www.epda.eu.com/images/patientGuide/PD12figure5.gif
*'''Surgery'''
When medications are no longer effective, surgery is an option for patients with Parkinson's Disease.
*Pallidotomy is a procedure used to treat PD. In this procedure, doctors laterally lesion the ventrointermediate nucleus located in the thalamus of the globus pallidus interna. This procedure can reduce symptoms of the disease and its effects last around 2 years.
*Another option is Deep Brain Stimulation. In this procedure, a pulse generator is planted in the skin of the chest and a corresponding multi-electrode is implanted into the ventrointermediate nucleus of the thalamus. Patients wave a magnet over the generator in their chest to turn the electrode on or off. When on, the patient receives electric stimulation to the thalamus, blocking tremors. The problem with this procedure is that the battery must be replaced every five years, meaning that the patient would need to undergo another expensive surgery. There are also various side-effects associated with this procedure as well; tingling in limbs, loss of balance, depression, slight paralysis, slurred speech, and loss of muscle tone.

http://images.medicinenet.com/images/ccf/42552_deepbrainstimulation.jpg

==Some Famous People with Parkinson's Disease==
* Jack Buck
* Salvador Dali
* Mao Zedong
*Michael J. Fox
**In the 2006 senate election, Michael J. Fox appeared in a commercial endorsing Claire McCaskill, the democratic candidate, for her support of federal funding of stem cell research. A conservative radio talk show host bashed the commercial stating that Michael J. Fox was over exaggerating the symptoms of his disease because of his shaky appearance in the commercial. In actuality, it was not the symptoms of PD that was illuminated; it was the effects of the medication on a PD patient. [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e6m5uqROgZQ Interview with Michael J. Fox on NBC's Today Show]
* Pope John Paul II
* Muhammad Ali
*Johnny Cash
==References==
*Ogden, Jenni A. (1996). Fractured Minds. Oxford: New York.
*Stirling, John. (2002). Introducing Neuropsychology. Psychology Press: New York.
*[http://www.parkinson.org/NETCOMMUNITY/Page.aspx?pid=201&srcid=-2 National Parkinson Foundation]

Korsakoff's syndrome

2008-01-14T16:53:57Z

RKochis:

[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]
=== '''Overview''' ===
Korsakoff's syndrome is a degenerative neurological condition caused by a deficiency in thiamine, a result of alcoholism and malnutrition.

== '''Causes''' ==
Korsakoff's syndrome, first studied and documented by Korsakoff in the late 1890s, is caused by a deficiency in thiamine (vitamin B-1) from long-term alcohol abuse, and a poor diet often associated with longtime alcoholism. Korsakoff's disease seems to result from extensive bilateral damage to the frontal lobe and frontal lobe atrophy, as well as damage to the medial thalamus, and bilateral damage to the mamillary bodies.

== '''Symptoms''' ==
The disorder is characterized by three symptomatic features: anterograde [[amnesia]], retrograde [[amnesia]], and confabulation. Anterograde [[amnesia]] and retrograde [[amnesia]] affect the memories stored in the brain from before and after the disease. The effects are that Korsakoff's can destroy one's ability to access long-term memory and form new short-term memories. The [[amnesia]] is due to the degeneration of the [[hippocampus]]. Confabulation is the filling-in of memory gaps by Korsakoff's patients in their semantic and episodic memories.
Other symptoms can include tremors and/or ataxia (lack of muscle coordination). Patients with Korsakoff's syndrome often demonstrate other symptoms such as apathy and a lack insight, but their IQ and reasoning seems to be unaffected.

== '''Treatment and Prognosis''' ==
While the most severe stages of the condition lead to coma and death, if caught early enough, recovery can be made through the use of intravenous thiamine supplements, and by improving general health and nutrition. The brain damage that occurs during the disease, however, is irreversible.

=== '''Examples''' ===
[[H.M. (patient)]] is a well-known case of the global amnesia caused by Korsakoff's syndrome. Patients suffering from [[herpes simplex encephalitis]] may also exhibit Korsakoff's symptoms such as difficulty in memory storage and retrieval.

http://www.mtsu.edu/~sschmidt/Cognitive/sts/brain2.jpg

Kluver-Bucy syndrome

2008-01-14T16:53:39Z

Bchristian: editing a few spots

[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]
'''Kluver-Bucy syndrome''' is a rare neurobehavioral disorder that occurs when there is bilateral damage to the medial temporal lobes in the brain. The syndrome is named for Heinrich Kluver and Paul Bucy, who attempted to determine its function by removing the temporal lobe bilaterally in rhesus monkeys. '''Kluver-Bucy syndrome''' can be characterized as one having oral tendencies (by putting things in their mouth), placidity (an absence of emotional response - being serene), and increased sexual activity. However, there was discovered different effects in monkeys and humans.

== In Rhesus Monkeys ==
''Symptoms''

* Oral tendencies: They would have a desire to explore everything examine their world with their mouths instead of their eyes

* Hypersexualism: Their overt sexual behavior increased dramatically and the monkeys indulged in indiscriminate sexual behavior including masturbation, heterosexual and homosexual acts.

* Emotional changes: The monkeys became less expressive in their face and vocalizations. There is also a loss of normal fear and anger responses. For example, even after being attacked by a snake, the monkey would willingly approach it again; these changes are connected to any lesion of the [[amygdala

* [[Visual agnosia]]: Though the monkeys could see, they were unable to recognize even previously familiar objects, or their use

== In Humans ==
People with a bilateral lesion in their temporal lobes show similar behaviors to the monkeys such as an oral tendency to explore, hypersexuality, and flattened emotions. In addition, other behaviors may include tactile exploratory behavior (socially inappropriate touching), bulimia, memory disorders, [[visual agnosia]] or [[prosopagnosia]].

Aside from accidental damage, extensive bilateral temporal damage can arise from herpes, encephalitis, cardiovascular disease, and dementias of degenerative ([[Alzheimer's Disease]]) or post-traumatic origins. In general, the syndrome rarely develops in humans.

==External links==
* [http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/kluver_bucy/kluver_bucy.htm The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke - Kluver-Bucy Syndrome]
*[http://neuro.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/11/1/116 Anatomic Basis of Kluver-Bucy Syndrome]
*[http://cogprints.org/2872/ Monkeys With Amygdala Lesions]
*[http://www.neurologyindia.com/article.asp?issn=0028-3886;year=2004;volume=52;issue=3;spage=369;epage=371;aulast=Jha Six distinct case studies of KBS in India]

Herpes simplex encephalitis

2008-01-14T16:53:19Z

Mcdlizzie87: /* Summary */

[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]

== Summary ==
'''Herpes Simplex Encephalitis (HSE)''' is caused by Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1). HSV-1 induces programmed cell death in neuronal cells but it is not clear if the HSE is triggered by the virus itself or the immune systemâ��s response to the infection. In any case, HSE attacks the brain causing bilateral focal damage that is usually localized to the medial '''temporal lobes''', through sometimes spreading to the inferior temporal and frontal temporal areas also. HSE results in severe memory deficits and occasionally executive deficits as well. Because of the bilateral destruction of the medial temporal lobe global amnesia can be suffered by survivors.
'''Clive Wearing'''
Clive was a famous case study, who became '''left globally amnesic''' as a result of HSE. His hippocampus was damaged as well as his medial and temporal and frontal lobes, likewise the amygdala was also damged. As a result of theese injuries Clive was unable to convert working memories into episodic memories. However,his task related memories remained intact, including his musical ability. His love for his wife was also remembered. He often reported that any given moment was the first time he was awake. Below is a picture of his Journal and the link to video we wached in class.
http://bp2.blogger.com/_W3pabW1Nu2w/RvWBKjXFHlI/AAAAAAAAADI/ONsyMnsM-bg/s400/Clive+Wearing+Diary.jpg

Hemineglect

2008-01-14T16:53:00Z

Kmcastino:

[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]
<H1>Hemineglect:</H1> 
<H2>Cause</H2> 
Hemineglect is a behavioral syndrome in which there has been damage to the parietal lobe. It is also commonly referred to as hemispatial neglect or spatial neglect. The amount of dysfunction shown is dependent on the extent of damage to the parietal lobe. The damage to the parietal lobe is caused most often by a stroke.

==Hemispatial neglect==

Hemispatial neglect is a loss of awareness of half of the world (usually the left half). Patients ignore objects to one side and sometimes parts of their boyd on that side. Patients only seem to pay attention to only half of an object in front of them.

==Hemineglect==

Although the damage can happen to either the left or right side, the effects are far greater when the left side of the individual is damaged (indicating right parietal lobe damage). The effects of the right parietal lobe are greater due to the fact is governs the control over the left parietal lobe and itself. Left side parietal damage forms a more manageable version of Hemineglect, due to the fact the right parietal lobe will still be able to govern over both sides. 
<H2>Symptoms</H2> 
Someone with Hemineglect is not able to pay any attention to half of their visual field. However there are reported cases of Hemineglect which individuals have different spatial referents such as left/right foreground or distance.
Cases range from individuals not caring about the ½ of the visual field missing, to the extreme of the absolute denial of ½ of their own body. 
<H2>Examples</H2> 
When an individual with hemineglect is drawing a clock, half of the clock will be very dysfunctional if apparent at all. See the attached picture for an example.
Although it seems as though these individuals are impaired, the non-damaged side is working just as any other normal person. It is the damaged side which is causing the problems. 
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mental-imagery/unineglect.gif Hemineglect can also be commonly referred to as hemispatial neglect or spatial neglect.

Gerstmann's syndrome

2008-01-14T16:52:38Z

Sriegsecker:

[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]

Gerstmann's syndrome is the term given to symptoms that indicate a lesion is present in the dominat side of [[angular gyrus]] and the supramarginal gyrus (near the temporal and parietal lobes). Those suffering with this syndrome experience difficulty recognizing, naming, selecting, and differentiating parts of the body, writing, mathematics, and left from right.

[[Image:Brain.jpg|right]]
== '''The Symptoms''' ==
=== '''Agraphia''' ===
* Difficulty writing
* Writing/printing is well, but spelling and word order are often incorrect and errors are common
* A reading impairment is not present; often knows what they have written is incorrect
* Lesions in the Dominant Parietal Lobe

=== '''Acalculia''' ===
* Lack of ability to calculate simple math
* Lesions in the Dominate Parietal Lobe

=== '''Right-left Disorientation''' ===
* Unable to distinguish right from left
* Lesions in the Posterior (Back) Left (or Dominant) Hemisphere

=== '''Finger Agnosia''' ===
* Inability to identify (by pointing or moving) a finger when told to identify one is told which one to identify
* Lesions in the Dominant Parietal Lobe

== '''Causes''' ==
For adults this syndrome is usually the result of a stroke or other damage to the parietal lobe. However, in the rare instance that a child was to develop this syndrome, it is unknown what would have caused it.

== '''Treatment/Prognosis''' ==
While there is no cure for Gerstmann's syndrome, patients usually adapt or symptoms diminish. Treatment includes strategies that help those with this disorder function in daily life. Such as occupational and speech therapies are often used to help minimize agraphia. Calculators and word processors (such as Microsoft Word) are used to help with agraphia and acalculia.

Executive dysfunction

2008-01-14T16:52:11Z

Bchristian: adding link/small edits

[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]

==Executive Function==

The term “executive functioning” refers to mental processes involved in goal-directed activity. The executive functions are found in the frontal lobes of the brain. If one has damage to the frontal lobes then they are considered to have an executive dysfunction. The frontal lobes are found in the front part of the brain. People with frontal lobe injuries seem to have a difficult time with the higher level processing described by the executive functions. The frontal cortex develops slower than other parts of the brain and, as you will notice later, many of the executive functions do not develop completely until the teen years.

As the name 'executive' implies the term executive function describes some cognitive abilities that control other abilities and behaviors. They are needed to perform goal-directed behavior, to initiate and stop actions, to change behavior as needed, and to plan future behaviors. These behaviors are the basis for any thing to act normally. Executive functions are necessary for managing the stresses of every day life. They also allow people to inhibit bad behaviors.

==Executive Dysfunction==

Executive dysfunctions are when people cannot do many tasks or activities normally because of a abnormal brain development or damage to the frontal lobes. People with executive dysfunctions may have problems interacting with other people because they might say or do things that seem inappropriate or offensive to others. Executive dysfunctions are shown in people with obsessive-compulsive disorder, depression, [[schizophrenia]], attention-deficit disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and autism. People who are antisocial as well as heavy users of drugs and alcohol also show symptoms of executive dysfunctions.

Cerebral disconnection syndrome

2008-01-14T16:51:51Z

Goni:

[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]

Cerebral disconnection syndrome is a general term that groups a number of neurological disorders together that involve interruption of fibre pathways in the cerebrum. In other words the different types of neurological disorders are due to information being blocked or disrupted and not being properly processed. Such neurological disorders include aphasia, left-sided apraxia, split-brain, and tactile aphasia.
----
[[Category: Aphasia]]
Aphasia is a disorder in which the person has difficulty speaking, not only saying words but putting together simple grammar. This disorder comes from damage to parietal lobe usually on the left hemisphere of the brain. Damage can com from not only accidental damage or trauma to the brain, but also stokes and tumors are able to bring the onset of aphasia. Today aphasia is separated into two different types; Broca and Wernicke’s aphasia. Broca’s aphasia is distinguished by damage being primarily in the frontal lobe of the brain. Those suffering with Broca’s aphasia have difficulty speaking in smooth and clear sentences and usually have great deal of trouble speaking for long periods of time. Most patients have trouble saying words such as “and”, “the”, and “is”. Usually these people know what they want to say, are aware that they are speaking unclearly and unable to control how they articulate their words. Wernicke’s aphasia is very different from Broca’s. Characterized by damage specifically to the temporal lobe of the brain, those suffering from this disorder are able to speak long sentences that usually make very little sense. These people may add words to their sentence that may be unnecessary or create new words. These people also usually are unable to understand things being said also, which is the reason why they are not able to catch the mistakes they make.
----
[[Category: Apraxia]]
Similar to aphasia, apraxia is another speech disorder in which the person suffering from this disorder is unable to speaking clearly and with consistency. Apraxia can result from brain trauma, stroke, or tumor in the brain.

Cerebral akinetopsia

2008-01-14T16:51:31Z

ErikaCline1986: /* Definition */

[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]

== Definition ==

Cerebral akinetopsia is a syndrome in which a patient loses specifically the ability to perceive visual motion due to cortical lesions outside the striate cortex. Do you know that my teacher is very strist. He gets me difficult research papers writing assignments. Hence, I need to use the [http://primewritings.com writing services] to purchase essay at. My rates are always high.
Cerebral akinetopsia is different from cerebral achromatopsia which is the inability to perceive color.

== Cases ==

A woman with akinetopsia, L.M., said that she couldn’t cross a street without traffic lights because she couldn’t judge the speed of oncoming traffic. She could see when a target was constantly changing in position, but could not perceive the movements associated with that position change (she also found moving objects, like a person’s mouth while talking, to be unpleasant to look at). She reported that “First the target is completely at rest. Then it suddenly jumps upwards and downwards (Zihl et. al., 1991, p. 2244 as cited in Carlson).” She could still, however, correctly identify objects and faces.

Another patient, R.A., had the opposite problem after damage to the medial right occipital lobe: R.A. could perceive complex movement, but could not identify form. This shows a dissociation between perception of motion and perception of form from motion.

Cerebral achromatopsia

2008-01-14T16:51:14Z

Ktreynolds:

[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]

==Overview==
'''Cerebral achromatopsia''' is a category of color-blindness (achromatopsia), distinguished by its etiology: damage to the ventro-medial occipital lobe, as opposed to an abnormal retinal structure. Nearly all known accounts of cerebral achromatopsia stem from illness/neurological damage to the ventro-medial occipital lobe. Visual processing areas of both hemispheres must sustain severe damage for this rare form of colorblindness to occur. In addition to the severity of damage necessary to produce the condition, the location involved (including the area known as V8) is also small and difficult to injure.
Those who develop cerebral achromatopsia lose the ability to identify individual colors, and even to imagine and remember them (as seen in the Sacks story, "Case of the Colorblind Painter"). This is due, according to Ogden, to a "loss of color memory" (150). It is not certain, however, whether the loss is because of "deficient color perception", or an "independent memory deficit" (150).
On another note, affected persons ''do'' remain able to detect differences between colors. For example, while a man with cerebral achromatopsia would not be able to see a painted wall and understand it to be "blue", if the wall were painted with alternating blue and yellow stripes, he would easily discern a difference in the stripes.
Cerebral achromatopsia sometimes exhibits comorbidity with other neurological dysfunctions, including visual agnosias (for example, in the case of Michael, discussed in Ogden, prosopagnosia, or the "inability to recognize faces on sight" (140)).

==Cases==
- Michael (from Ogden): After a motorcycle incident, which put him into a temporary coma, Michael was revealed to have lost the ability to recognize objects and faces by sight. In addition, he reported being unable to see or imagine colors. Brain scans revealed significant damage (to both the grey and white matter) to the medial area of his occipital lobes.

- "Jonathan" (from Sacks): A painter whose world was irrevocably changed after he was injured in a car accident. Jonathan was at first discouraged by this loss of not only the ability to see color, but to visualize and remember it. Food, he notes, is difficult to eat because it looks so unappetizing without any color. Not only this--he cannot even close his eyes to make eating easier, because the image in his head is just as bland and grey. He knows the word "blue", but it is an empty word, like all mentions of color. Eventually, however, he came to find the beauty and fascination in his new way of seeing the world, and went on to transform his artistic style, and to create new and interesting works of art.

==Sources==
Ogden, Jenni. Fractured Minds: A Case-Study Approach to Clinical Neuropsychology. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.

Sacks, Oliver. ''The Case of the Colorblind Painter''.

== Links ==

[http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v1/n3/full/nn0798_171.html Cerebral Achromatopsia]

Broca's aphasia

2008-01-14T16:50:58Z

Dvalverde:

[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]
Named after [[Paul Broca]] in 1861, Broca's aphasia is a motor speech disorder that results in one's inability to properly pronounce and/or remember words correctly. Such non fluency in the pronunciation of words can result in incoherent responses, like "Speech" pronounced as "peech", or "talk" will sound like "palk". This is because letters like p, b, and m are formed at the front of the mouth, while s and t are harder to pronounce with motor skills disorders. Also, patients suffering from Broca's aphasia tend to use verbs in a more simple form such as "me go" instead of "I am going" (86, Ogden). [[Paul Broca]]'s patient Leborgne, also known as [[Tan (aphasia patient)]], constantly mumbled this word, hence the name. [[Tan (aphasia patient)]] suffered a lesion on the third frontal gyrus. The frontal gyrus, which is known as the Broca's area is in high correlation to the motor-speech memories. Adjacent to the [[Broca's area]], the precentral gyrus features the motor neurons for the tongue and lips. Issues with either/both of these areas easily result with incoherently pronounced words.

OTHER AREAS OF DIFFICULTY:

One's right hand can become paralyzed as the lesion of the brain that relates to the frontal gyrus can invade the motor strip of the hand. This often happens with Broca's patients and such physical disorders leads these Broca's patients to attempt to write with their non paralyzed left hands. Unfortunately, switching hands results in non fluent writing including misspelled words, inaccurate grammar, and words that are left out completely. Ogden states that copying can be the best option for this situation.

Many Broca's patients suffer from oral apraxia, which demonstrates a high correlation between the two. Oral apraxia results in patients having trouble performing learned motor skills on command. Patients who have a severe diagnosis of oral apraxia tend to be unable to imitate the instructor with such tasks as whistling or sticking one's tongue out.

As stated before, the paralysis of the right arm generally goes with the Broca's aphasia. If the patient can improve his/her speech, the paralyzed arm usually can become usable again. However, if the speech does not improve, then generally the paralyzed arm will remain inept to any form of use.

[[Image:Brocasaphasia1.jpg]]

[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f2IiMEbMnPM Broca's Aphasia Video from Class]

Blindsight

2008-01-14T16:50:41Z

Adipasqua:

[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]

== '''Definition''' ==

Blindsight is defined by the Oxford Concise Dictionary as "a condition in which the sufferer responds to visual stimuli without consciously perceiving them". Human patients with such a condition often have lost function of their [[primary visual cortex (V1)]] and claim they are blind. In primates and humans, the retina relays its major neural output to the thalamus and then to visual cortex (V1, or striate cortex). When the strait cortex is completely removed or blocked in the brain of a monkey, the animal can still discriminate between certain visual stimuli, though its overall capacity for normal functioning has changed. This is because the output from the eye also reaches various other brain regions in the midbrain and thalamus that often remain intact and undamaged when V1 is completely removed.

== '''History''' ==

The history of blindsight stems from a focus on animal research and neuroanatomy, especially in the contrast of human and other primate visual cortex functions. One of the first hypotheses of residual vision in monkeys was made in 1886 by David Ferrier, who removed his subjects' entire visual cortexes and observed the 'blind' monkeys navigating around obstacles. More than a century and numerous studies later, the general consensus has been drawn that monkeys lacking a primary visual cortex can discriminate shapes, show sharp sensitivity to the detection of movement and contrast, and have measurable acuity. However, these abilities are discernibly reduced from normal functioning. In contrast to primates, evidence on the lack of V1 or damage to the area in human brains remained inconclusive until more recently.

An innovator in the field, Dr. Larry Weiskrantz came up with the oxymoron 'blindsight' at an Oxford University seminar when he was pressured for a title for his seminar on his striking behavioral research results, and the term began to be widely used in the 1970's.

== The Case of DB ==

[[D.B. (blindsight patient)]] was a patient at the National Hospital in London who became the first major focus of research in human blindsight. His occipital lobe of his right hemisphere had been removed to alleviate headaches caused by a benign tumor in the area. While the surgery virtually cured him of his migraines, DB became blind in the left half of his visual field following the procedure. However, DB's 'blindness' was not normal in that he had retained an ability to locate objects and detect some changes in his blind visual field. Dr. Larry Weiskrantz of Oxford University conducted much of the research on the case, and instead of relying on DB's personal descriptions of what he couldn't see, he applied 'monkey-type' tests, or methods of forced-choice more commonly used with animals to measure DB's visual capacity.

What was so astonishing about DB was the accuracy of a variety of his discriminations by 'guesswork' in his blind visual field, even when he insisted he couldn't really 'see' anything. For example, he could tell if an object was in motion or stationary, the orientation of a pattern or grating, forced-choice guesses if there were 'lines' or 'no lines', and could even reach out and touch an object with a high, though not normal, level of accuracy - all without any kind of acknowledgment or awareness on his part. When shown his own results on many of the tasks he had performed, he remained disbelieving and attributed his success to chance. For ten years, DB was a focus of Weiskrantz's studies, and the resulting body of work was the book simply titled 'Blindsight' in 1986.

[[Image:200px-Larry Weiskrantz photo.jpg]]
Dr. Larry Weiskrantz

== '''Types of Blindsight''' ==

Varieties in the visual phenomenon range in the types of visual properties and attributes that can be successfully discriminated by the 'blind' individual. Changes in stimuli can include color, simple shapes, motion, different orientations of lines or gratings, onset or termination of visual events, to the emotional expressions on unseen faces. These emotional faces can be successfully identified through 'guessing' at much higher than chance levels.

However, there are severe changes in the abilities of a 'blindsight' patient from those visual abilities of a person with normal vision. Visual acuity - though credible - is severely reduced, and motion perception is limited from identifying more complex motion patterns. Color discrimination seems to be successful in patients, but there is often a shift in sensitivity toward long wavelengths (red) and away from short wavelengths (greens).

== ''Interesting Link'' ==

For an interesting game that approximates an experience of a blindsight patient, go to this site:
serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/blindsight.html

Balint's syndrome

2008-01-14T16:46:46Z

DMCGAUGHEY:

[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]

== Description ==
A syndrome combining paralysis of visual fixation, optic ataxia (the inability to guide movement according to visual information, i.e. the inability to reach out and grab something that is in front of you), and impairment of visual fixation. It is marked by inability to execute voluntary movement in response to visual stimuli. Despite normal field of view and normal acuity the patients perceives only one object, from which he can hardly move his eyes, while all other objects are not recognized. A rare disorder of oculomotor function due to bilateral lesions of the parietal and occipital lobes. First described by Balint in 1909. Gordon Morgan Holmes reported another in 1918.[http://www.whonamedit.com/synd.cfm/1343.html]

'''Balint's syndrome''' has been found in patients with bilateral damage to the [[posterior parietal cortex]]. The primary cause of the damage and the syndrome can originate from multiple strokes, [[Alzheimer's Disease]], intracranial tumors, or brain injury. This syndrome is caused by damage to the posterior superior watershed areas aka the parietal-occipital vascular border zone (Brodmann's areas 19 and 7). '''Balint's Syndrome''' has only recently been reported in children (Gillen and Dutton, 2003). In children this syndrome results in a variety of occupational difficulties, but most notably difficulties in schoolwork, especially reading.

http://ahsmail.uwaterloo.ca/kin356/ataxia/psyche-4-12-milner1.gif

Autotopagnosia

2008-01-14T16:46:16Z

Kmcastino:

[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]

An inability to recognize parts of the body. In some cases, the inability is the recognition of parts of someone else's body, sometimes one's own. Sometimes a patient may be able to name a body part pointed to, but not point to a body part named. The inability may or may not extend to body parts or animals or parts of other objects.

Anosognosia

2008-01-14T16:46:01Z

Kmcastino:

[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]

Anosognosia is lack of awareness of an injury or handicap.

Asomatognosia is lack of awareness of one's own body. A patient may not recognize the hand on his lap is his own.

Anosodiaphoria: Indifference to paralysis. The patient is aware but is unconcerned about it.

'''Anosognosia''' comes from the Greek roots "nosos" meaning disease and "gnosis" meaning knowledge, with the prefix 'a' meaning without. Anosognosia is the ignorance of the presence of disease. This condition was originally interchangeable in the medical field with denial. However, denial is an unconscious defense mechanism characterized by refusal to acknowledge painful realities, thoughts, or feelings. In 1914, [[Joseph Babinski]] coined the term anosognosia to describe patients with [[hemiplegia]] who were not aware of their illness. It is differentiated from denial because it is an unawareness of a neurological deficit and does not appear to be a defense mechanism.

== Research ==

Early in research on the condition, Weinstein and Kahn (1955), believed that there may be individual types of anosognosia. Their research was not able to isolate a neurological function or brain area that was specifically associated with anosognosia. Even so, there are a variety of syndromes associated with anosognosia that apply to a variety of different neurological problems. However, this condition is most closely associated with paralysis occurring in patients with non-dominant parietal lobe lesions, who deny presence of hemiparesis. It also occurs in people who become blind, in Anton's syndrome; or who which lose some other sensory experience as well as in mentally ill people.

Anosognosia is most commonly related to the denial of paralysis in people who recently suffered strokes. Approximately 20-30% of people with hemiplegia or hemiparesis after strokes also have symptoms of anosognosia. Some research has found as high as 58% of right hemisphere stroke patients denied hemiplegia or acknowledge weakness in their left arm. Likewise, some researchers, Xavier Amador specifically, has suggested that a form of anosognosia affects many schizophrenic and bipolar patients. He believes that nearly half of people with these disorders do not get treatment because they do not acknowledge that they are ill. Even patients who are diagnosed resist believing they are ill and instead fabricate illogical explanations for their symptoms and behaviors.

Some patients with Anosognosia can suffer from a related phenomenon called Somatoparaphrenia. With this disorder patients begin to have delusional beliefs about their bodies. An example of such delusions can be that one of their limbs belongs to another person.

== Treatment ==

From further research it appears that anosognosia patients differ widely when confronted about their condition. In milder cases patients show some acknowledgement of their illness and became agitated when told about their condition. Other patients are completely unaware and are surprised when they cannot perform tasks (Prigatano and Koloff). Treatment for people with anosognosia is difficult. Although many people recover relatively quickly from this condition, it does remain permanent in other instances. In cases of strong anosognosia in particular, patients may resist treatment all together.

== Links ==

[http://www.psychlaws.org/GeneralResources/article55.htm Anosognosia Symptoms in Schizophrenics]

[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F0R0OCurkLM Anosognosia with Ramachandran]

Amnesia

2008-01-14T16:45:10Z

Prea:

[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]

[[Amnesia]] is a condition in which memory is disturbed. The causes of amnesia can be organic or functional. Organic causes include damage to the brain, through an injury or disease, or use of certain drugs. Functional causes are psychological factors, such as defense mechanisms. Hysterical post-traumatic amnesia is an example of this. Amnesia may also be spontaneous, in the case of transient global amnesia. This global type of amnesia is more common in middle-aged to elderly people, particularly males, and usually lasts less than 24 hours.

Although there are many types of amnesia, there are two main forms of it. '''Anterograde amnesia''' is where new events contained in the immediate memory are not transferred to the permanent as long-term memory. The sufferer will not be able to remember anything that occurs after the onset of this type of amnesia for more than a brief period following the event. '''Retrograde amnesia''' is the inability to recall some memory or memories of the past, beyond ordinary forgetfulness.

'''Other types of amnesia include:'''

*'''[[Korsakoff's syndrome]]''': Memory loss caused by alcohol abuse. The person's short-term memory may be normal, but they will have severe problems recalling a simple story, lists of unrelated words, faces and complex patterns. This tends to be a progressive disorder and is usually accompanied by neurological problems, such as uncoordinated movements and loss of feeling in the fingers and toes. If these symptoms occur, it may be too late to stop drinking

*'''Traumatic amnesia''': This follows brain damage caused by a severe non-penetrative blow to the head, such as in a road accident. It can lead to anything from a loss of consciousness for a few seconds to coma.

*'''Infantile/childhood amnesia''': This refers to a person's inability to recall events from early childhood. There are many theories on this, for example, Freud put it down to sexual repression. Others say it could be linked to language development or the fact that some areas of the brain linked to memory are not fully mature

*'''Hysterical amnesia''': This covers episodes of amnesia linked to psychological trauma. It is usually temporary and can be triggered by a traumatic event with which the mind finds it difficult to deal. Usually, the memory slowly or suddenly comes back a few days later, although memory of the trauma may remain incomplete.

Alzheimer's Disease

2008-01-14T16:06:15Z

Sriegsecker: /* Interesting Facts */

[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]

=Description of Alzheimer's Disease=

Alzheimer's Disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that accelerates cell loss. The treatment costs of Alzheimer's Disease (AD) in the United States is estimated to be 100 billion. AD is the fourth common cause of death after heart disease, cancer and stroke. The neurobehavioral hallmark of probable AD is a gradual onset and continuous cognitive decline. The neuropathology of AD can only be confirmed by biopsy or autopsy which includes the presence of neurofibrillary tangles and amyloid or senile plaques. They occur in normal elderly persons but they occur in much larger numbers throughout the brains of AD patients and affect the functioning of the hippocampi. The brains of AD victims also have large numbers of granulovascuolar organelles which are small clusters of dead brain cell material that collect in the neurons in the hippocampi. Atrophy or shriveled cortex or shrunken cortex is a sign of dead nuerons that are present in Alzheimer's Disease.Scientists have so far identified one Alzheimer risk gene called apolipoprotein E-e4 (APOE-e4).

==Diagnosis==

Today, the only definite way to diagnose AD is to find out whether there are plaques and tangles in brain tissue. To look at brain tissue, however, doctors usually must wait until they do an autopsy, which is an examination of the body done after a person dies. Therefore, doctors can only make a diagnosis of possible or probable AD while the person is still alive.

At specialized centers, doctors can diagnose AD correctly up to 90 percent of the time. Doctors use several tools to diagnose probable AD, including:

* questions about the person's general health, past medical problems, and ability to carry out daily activities,
* tests of memory, problem solving, attention, counting, and language,
* medical tests such as tests of blood, urine, or spinal fluid, and
* brain scans.

Sometimes these test results help the doctor find other possible causes of the person's symptoms. For example, thyroid problems, drug reactions, depression, brain tumors, and blood vessel disease in the brain can cause AD-like symptoms. Some of these other conditions can be treated successfully.

=Treatment=

No treatment can stop AD. However, for some people in the early and middle stages of the disease, the drugs tacrine (Cognex, which is still available but no longer actively marketed by the manufacturer), donepezil (Aricept), rivastigmine (Exelon), or galantamine (Razadyne, previously known as Reminyl) may help prevent some symptoms from becoming worse for a limited time. Another drug, memantine (Namenda), has been approved to treat moderate to severe AD, although it also is limited in its effects. Also, some medicines may help control behavioral symptoms of AD such as sleeplessness, agitation, wandering, anxiety, and depression. Treating these symptoms often makes patients more comfortable and makes their care easier for caregivers.

=Research=

In recent years researchers have found that exercise improves memory,concentration, and abstract reasoning among older adults, and may even delay the onset of Alzheimer's disease. Aerobic exercise increases blood flow to the brain which nourishes brain cells and allows them to function more effectively. A recent study showed that exercise actually promotes the growth of new neurons(brain cells) in the hippocampus--the part of the brain that controls memory and learning. Scientists previously believed that once brain cells died, they were not replaced. According to previous research, chemicals, obesity, and smoking have all been linked to Alzheimer's. People who described themselves as goal-oriented and able to control impulses were less likely to develop Alzheimer's Disease according to a study of 997 people. Baby monkeys exposed to lead showed Alzheimer's like symptoms including amyloid plague, years later, according to a recent study. At the University of Alabama at Birmingham, mice who drank the equivalent of five sodas a day for six months did worse on memory tasks than those who drank water. The mice that had sodas had more than twice the amyloid plaque in their brains (which is a sign of Alzheimer's) than the others.
==Interesting Facts==
Someone develops Alzheimer's Disease every 71 seconds. As adults, the music we tend to be nostalgic for, the music that feels like it is "our" music, corresponds to the music we heard during the teen years. One of the first signs of Alzheimer's disease (a disease characterized by changes in nerve cells and neurotransmitter levels, as well as destruction of synapses) in older adults is memory loss. As the disease progresses, memory loss becomes more profound. Yet many of these old-timers can still remember how to sing the songs they heard when they were fourteen.

==Science==

Two abnormal structures called plaques and tangles are prime suspects in damaging and killing nerve cells. Plaques and tangles were among the abnormalities that Dr. Alois Alzheimer saw in the brain of Auguste D., although he called them different names.

* Plaques build up between nerve cells. They contain deposits of a protein fragment called beta-amyloid (BAY-tuh AM-uh-loyd). Tangles are twisted fibers of another protein called tau (rhymes with "wow").

* Tangles form inside dying cells. Though most people develop some plaques and tangles as they age, those with Alzheimer's tend to develop far more. The plaques and tangles tend to form in a predictable pattern, beginning in areas important in learning and memory and then spreading to other regions.

Scientists are not absolutely sure what role plaques and tangles play in Alzheimer's disease. Most experts believe they somehow block communication among nerve cells and disrupt activities that cells need to survive.

[[image:alzheimers-disease.jpg]]

==History Behind Alzheimer's Disease==

At a scientific meeting in November 1906, German physician Alois Alzheimer presented the case of "Frau Auguste D.," a 51-year-old woman brought to see him in 1901 by her family. Auguste had developed problems with memory, unfounded suspicions that her husband was unfaithful, and difficulty speaking and understanding what was said to her. Her symptoms rapidly grew worse, and within a few years she was bedridden. She died in Spring 1906, of overwhelming infections from bedsores and pneumonia.

Dr. Alzheimer had never before seen anyone like Auguste D., and he gained the family's permission to perform an autopsy. In Auguste's brain, he saw dramatic shrinkage, especially of the cortex, the outer layer involved in memory, thinking, judgment and speech. Under the microscope, he also saw widespread fatty deposits in small blood vessels, dead and dying brain cells, and abnormal deposits in and around cells.

The condition entered the medical literature in 1907, when Alzheimer published his observations about Auguste D. In 1910, Emil Kraepelin, a psychiatrist noted for his work in naming and classifying brain disorders, proposed that the disease be named after Alzheimer.

[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1YI3pNATCU Alzheimer's Disease video]

Wisconsin card sort test

2008-01-12T19:22:45Z

Dvalverde:

[[Category:Neuropsychological methods]]

== Links ==

[http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O87-WisconsinCardSortingtest.html Definition]

[[Image:wisconsincardsort.jpg]]
[[Image:Example.jpg]]

Wisconsin Card Sorting Test
'''The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test''' (WCST) is a neuropsychological test of "set-shifting", i.e. the ability to display flexibility in the face of changing schedules of reinforcement.
When the test was first invented it was done with the experimenter sitting across a table from from the participant, now in present day it can be done on the computer in about 12- 20 minutes. The way it is conducted is the participant is handed a set stimulus cards. Then the participant is given another set of cards. He or she is asked to match the cards. The person conducting the experiment does not tell the participant how to match, but they do tell the person whether it is a right or wrong match.
The test’s clinical use is very vital to studies. It is used by [[neurologists, neuropsychologists, clinical psychologists and psychiatrists]]. The "normal" participant in this study is someone who is suffering from acquired brain injury, neurodegenerative disease, and mental illness such as schizophrenia. In order to complete the test a the participant has to be able to perform cognitive functions such as attention and working memory. The test is loosely caoined a "frontal lobe test".

Wechsler adult intelligence scale

2008-01-12T19:22:25Z

Jadunn:

[[Category:Neuropsychological methods]]
== Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)==

The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale is a general test of intelligence (IQ). The predecessor to this test was the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale which was created in 1939. This testing scale was replaced by David Wechsler’s range of intelligence tests in 1955.

[[Image:Wechsler.jpg]]

''Dr. David Wechsler the creator of WAIS''

== Development and Revision ==

Several versions of this test have appeared since its creation. There are also different versions of this test in different countries. Revisions to the test in 1981 modified it to the WAIS-R. This test was standardized in the United States by testing a sample of 1,800 people from ages 16-74. The subjects were equally broken down into 9 age groups. There were equal numbers of men and women as well as white and nonwhite individuals which corresponded to figures from the census. The sample was further broken down into four geographic locations for the country. There was an attempt to balance between urban and rural subjects in the sample. Furthermore the subjects used in the sample were divided into six occupational groups. Thus, the standardization of the test was done in a manner in which to achieve a strong representative sample of the entire population in order to get accurate measures of intelligence. This scale has high levels of validity and reliability. The mean IQ for each of the age groups was a score of 100, with a standard deviation of 15. The current version of this test is the WAIS-III. This revision was made in the United States in 1997. It contains nearly 80% of the original test, along with improvements which attempt to make the scale culturally fair.

[[Image:Wais3.jpg]]

The tests measure intelligence in verbal and performance abilities. There are a total of 14 subtests. There are 7 verbal subtests and 7 performance subtests. The tests provide three scores: a verbal IQ, a performance IQ, and a full-scale IQ which is a composite of the combined scores.

== The Verbal Subtests ==

-Information:
Degree of general information acquired from culture

-Comprehension:
Ability to deal with abstract social conventions, rules and expressions

-Arithmetic:
Concentration while manipulating mental mathematical problems

-Similarities:
Abstract verbal reasoning

-Vocabulary:
The degree to which one has learned, been able to comprehend and verbally express vocabulary

-Digit span:
For attention and concentration

-Letter-Number Sequencing:
Attention and working memory

== The Performance Subtests ==

-Picture Completion:
Ability to quickly perceive visual details

-Digit Symbol or Coding:
Visual-motor coordination, motor and mental speed

-Block Design:
Spatial perception, visual abstract processing & problem solving

-Matrix Reasoning:
Nonverbal abstract problem solving, inductive reasoning, spatial reasoning

-Picture Arrangement:
Logical/sequential reasoning, social insight

-Symbol Search:
Visual perception, speed

-Object Assembly:
Visual analysis, synthesis, and construction

== Use with the Brain-Damaged ==

With the separate tests and subtests it is possible to measure IQ in individuals who cannot complete either the verbal or performance components. Thus, individuals who are not able to comprehend or manage language can be tested through the performance tests for intelligence. Likewise the IQ of individuals that have visual or motor deficits can be calculated from the verbal tests alone. Neurologists often test patients with brain damage with subsections of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. This is done in order to make links between test performance and which areas in the brain have been damaged. Specific subsets may even be used to measure the extent of damage to specific brain areas. A different WAIS is often used for these purposes. It is the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Test Scale-Revised as a Neuropsychological Instrument. This intelligence scale is calculated with brain-damaged norms, thus, it is appropriate for comparisons among brain damaged individuals.

== Other Wechsler Intelligence tests ==

There are three main types of Wechsler intelligence tests. They are focused on specific age groups. The first of these is Wechsler Pre-school and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI) which is specific to children ages 3-7. Another is the Wechsler Intelligence scale for Children (WISC) which is appropriate for use on children aged 7 to 16. Finally the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) is used in accurately measuring the intelligence of people aged 16 and older.

Wada test

2008-01-12T19:22:00Z

Dvalverde:

[[Category:Neuropsychological methods]]

== Overview ==

[[Image:wada.jpg|right]]
The Wada Test, officially referred to as the intracarotid sodium amobarbital procedure or ISAP, is named after Dr. Juhn E. Wada, the first physician who performed it. It is used to determine localization, that is which functions are located in which part of the brain. The test consists of administering a drug, sodium amytal, to the internal carotid artery one hemisphere at a time, thereby inducing a temporary lesion lasting only a few minutes. Before injecting the drug, the patient is given tests measuring his or her abilities in speech, object naming, and memory. While one hemisphere is anesthetized, the neuropsychologist then tests the other hemisphere to evaluate how well it manages speech, naming, and memory.

== Tests ==

The tests used for the Wada procedure vary depending on the center. The Montreal Neurological Institute technique, however, can be used as a guide on the types of tests given and how the results are used. Memory tests usually consist in showing the patient five items that test both his or her verbal and visual memory. For example, the patient may be asked to memorize two pictures of an object, an actual object, a word, and then a sentence. After the anesthetic wears off, the patient will be asked to recall or choose among a number of items, the original five items shown when only one hemisphere was awake. If the majority of items cannot be remembered, the temporal lobe and [[hippocampus]] that stayed awake cannot mediate memory. This information is important because if temporal lobe needs to be removed, for a person with epilepsy for example, the removal would not cause a problem since this lobe is already known to be dysfunctional. Likewise if the other hemisphere was the one with the epileptic focus, removing that temporal lobe and the [[hippocampus]] may cause [[amnesia]] in the individual.

== Modern Uses of the Wada Test ==

[[Functional magnetic resonance imaging]] (fMRI) has increasingly been taking the place of the Wada test, which can be more invasive and less accurate. The fMRI, on the other hand, has been used to directly visualize the origin of seizures and to detect blood flow changes. Although radical personality changes are rarely noticed in patients who undergo the Wada procedure, disinhibition, [[hemiplegia]], [[hemineglect]], and shivering are common. The Wada procedure, though, does not usually cause long term problems and for a person who suffers from constant seizures, completing the Wada procedure successfully can be life-changing.

[http://youtube.com/watch?v=TY2FBG39V_w Wada test described in Spanish but able to see what is happening]

== Difference in Brain Organization between Right and Left-Handers? ==

The Wada Test put to rest the belief that the left hander's brain was the mirror image of the right hander's brain. Results from the test showed the pattern of lateralization found in most right-handers was the same in about 70% of left-handers. Of the 30% remaining, half showed the opposite pattern (known as reversed asymmetry) and the other half showed language and spatial skills distributed in both hemispheres (referred to as bi-lateral distribution).

== Resources ==

*http://www.epilepsy.com/epilepsy/surgery_wada
*http://www-personal.umich.edu/~gusb/wadadesc.html
*Stirling, John. Introducing Neuropsychology
*Ogden, Jenni A. Fractured Minds: A Case Study Approach to Clinical Neuropsychology.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation

2008-01-12T19:18:30Z

Ktreynolds:

[[Category:Neuropsychological methods]]
==What It Is==
'''Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation''' (abbreviated to '''TMS''') is a technique used in a wide variety of neurological experimental tests, which creates a temporary lesion in a specific brain area. It has been extremely influential in demonstrating neurological causality (seeing what damage to which areas of the brain produce what effect). First used in 1985 in England, TMS has proven its worth in numerous neurological studies not only in determining causal relationships, as previously stated, but also for being a relatively painless procedure, in contrast to earlier electrical stimulative methods.
However, a distinction should be made between TMS and (repetitive) rTMS; the latter of these produces longer-lasting lesions. rTMS, also, has been shown in some studies to be an effective treatment for some psychiatric and neurological disorders, including strokes, Parkinson's Disease, and depression.

==How It Works==
TMS uses rapidly fired and changing magnetic fields (called electromagnetic induction) delivered by way of a metallic, figure-eight "coil" over the scalp, to disrupt the neurons in the intended area. The electromagnetic pulse in single TMS causes the neurons in the intended area to "depolarize and discharge an action potential". The subject's behavior and perception are then slightly altered--she or he may notice phosphenes, or flashes of light, if the pulse was directed at his/her primary visual cortex, or (s)he may demonstrate an increased reaction time at a cognitive task. The effects are short-lived, normally gone very shortly after the neurons are stimulated.

rTMS produces a longer-lasting effect. It is thought to affect the synaptic abilities of the neurons in contact with the pulses, relating to both long-term potentiation (LTP), where the connections between neurons (neurotransmission) are strengthened, and long-term depression (LTD), where the neurotransmission is weakened.

In research, two techniques for delivering TMS pulses are commonly used. The first, called "Online TMS", involves delivering a pulse while a subject is completing the intended task. If the participant's performance of the task is then altered, then the part of the brain subjected to the pulse is almost positively involved in the performance of the task.
The other type, "Offline repetitive TMS" occurs when a subject first completes a task without TMS and his/her performance is analyzed. Then the TMS is given, and the task is completed again. Any changes in performance are noted and measured.

==Where You've Seen It==
The 1996 study carried out by Cohen et al. (as seen in the plasticity symposium) used TMS to create a temporary lesion of the primary visual cortex in blind subjects, who were then shown to have increased difficulty in reading Braille and determining embossed Roman letters, indicating that the visual cortex ''is'' put to use, even in the blind, for processing Braille and other tactile information.

==Sources==
Wikipedia

Cohen et al.: ''Functional relevance of cross-modal plasticity in blind humans.''

Tower of London test

2008-01-12T19:18:04Z

Kkrughoff:

[[Category:Neuropsychological methods]]

The Tower of London

This is a well known neuropsychological test, generally used to assess executive functioning. It consists of two boards with pegs and several beads with different colours. The test observer, normally a neuropsychologist, then uses the board in avariety of ways to test problem solving skills. Performance is then compared to representative samples f those of the same age in order to determine cognitive ability. Tower of London scores increase in a linear fashion with age but once in 8th grade there is no statistical difference to the results of young adults.

There is some controversy about the test and its accuracy and reliability especially as scientists use a wide variety of variants and scoring systems but it continues to be used to assess visuospatial planning and problem solving skills. Although it is used in neuropsychological experiments it is rare that it is used in clinical testing. However in one clinical test using the Tower of London it was found that brain activation during planning activities primarily resides in the prefrontal cortex. This was shown using MR imaging as patientâ��s conducted the test (Lazeron et al. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 21:1407-1414. 8 2000).

Variants have been devised for use with children and adults suffering from brain dysfunction but it is rarely used in the assessment of children with learning disabilities. One such test, however, found that children with arithmetic difficulties exhibited significantly greater impairment using the Tower of London test than those with either reading difficulties or no difficulty at al (Sikora et al Development Neuropsychology vol 21 issue 3, June 02. 243-254). Perhaps executives that are stronger literally than numerically would do well with the Tower of London test?

Perhaps because it is used to assess cognitive ability a form of the Tower of London is used in a wide a variety of puzzles, including computer games.

www,wikipedia.org

www.ajnr.org

www.informaworld.coml

www.jnnp.bmj.com.

www.content.karger.com

www.4.gu.edu

www.sciencedirect.com

http://learningspaces.org/n/papers/virtual_ToH_sm.gif