http://72.14.177.54/psy3241/?feed=atom&target=BPEASE&title=Special%3AContributionsPsy3241 - User contributions [en]2026-10-02T14:32:13ZFrom Psy3241MediaWiki 1.15.1http://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Phineas_GagePhineas Gage2008-04-24T20:58:58Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Neuropsychological profiles]]<br />
•Phineas Gage was born July 9, 1823, in Lebanon, Grafton County, New Hampshire.<br />
<br />
•He died in San Francisco, California on May 21, 1860.<br />
<br />
•On September 13, 1848 Gage, being part of a team of railroad workers in charge of digging blast holes to build a railroad, filled the hole with gunpowder but left out the sand. While tamping it down "the powder exploded, carrying an instrument through his head an inch and a fourth in circumference [sic], and three feet and eight inches in length, which he was using at the time. The iron entered on the side of his face, shattering the upper jaw, and passing back of the left eye, and out the top of his head."<br />
<br />
[[Image:Skull_rod.jpg]]<br />
<br />
•Gage spoke within a few minutes, walked with little or no assistance, and sat upright in a cart for the 3/4-mile ride to town. Though physicians found him weak from hemorrhage, he had a regular pulse of about 60 and was alert and coherent.<br />
<br />
•Amazingly, the rod seemed to have just missed any vital sensory areas in his head, such as the sinus and the left optic nerve.<br />
<br />
•It is still uncertain as to whether the rod damaged both frontal lobes or just the left.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Skull_rod2.jpg]]<br />
<br />
•Pre-accident Gage has been described as hard-working, responsible, and popular with the men in his charge.<br />
<br />
•Post-accident Gage, however, has been described as fitful, irreverent, indulging at times in the grossest profanity (which was not previously his custom), manifesting but little deference for his fellows, impatient of restraint or advice when it conflicts with his desires, at times pertinaciously obstinate, yet capricious and vacillating, devising many plans of future operations, which are no sooner arranged than they are abandoned in turn for others appearing more feasible.<br />
<br />
== Outside Resources ==<br />
[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kJqCOarebWw The Phinease Gage Story Video Clip]</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/H.M._(patient)H.M. (patient)2008-04-24T20:56:20Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>'''H. M.''' is the single most famous case study in the history of neuropsychology. H. M. is an anonymous memory-impaired man, who is only referred to by his initials of H.M. (his real name was Henry). H. M. has one of the most severe cases of amnesia ever recorded, and has been observed by over 100 researchers for over 40 years. <br />
<br />
<br />
== History ==<br />
H.M was born in Hartford, Connecticut in 1926. He suffered from severe epilepsy, which has often been attributed to a bicycle accident at the age of 9, where he lost consciousness for 5 minutes. He began experiencing mild seizures, and had his first major seizure on his 16th birthday. He also had a family history of epilepsy stemming from his father's side. Into his late 20's, H.M. was experiencing up to 10 seizures and blackouts a week. His seizures were becoming incapacitating and he seemed to be unresponsive to anti-epileptic medications, even at maximum dosages. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Surgery ==<br />
In 1953, at the age of 27, H.M. was referred to William Beecher Scoville, founder and director of the Department of Neurosurgery at Hartford Hospital. Dr. Scoville localized H.M.'s seizures to the temporal lobe, and on September 1st of that same year, he performed an experimental surgery on H.M. called a bilateral medial temporal lobe resection, removing parts of the temporal lobe from both hemispheres. The resection ultimately removed H.M.'s [[amygdala]], [[entorhinal cortex]], perirhinal cortex, and two-thirds of his [[hippocampus]] (see below).<br />
[[Image:HM Brain.jpg]]<br />
<br />
<br />
== Amnesia ==<br />
H.M.'s surgery was successful in alleviating his symptoms, and he only had about 2 seizures per year after his surgery. H. M. was, however, left with profound memory difficulties. He has severe anterograde amnesia, and partial retrograde amnesia. He cannot form new long-term memories since his surgery, and cannot acquire new knowledge about anything going on around him or in the world. He does, however, know that he has some kind of illness, and that he is contributing something by allowing researchers to study him. <br />
<br />
Despite H.M.'s [[amnesia]], he remembers most all of his childhood memories, and can even correctly draw a foorplan of the house he grew up in. He also has an above average IQ of 118, and his capacity for language seems to be perfectly intact. H.M. has also proven to be able to learn simple sensorimotor skills: his performance improves with practice on a task involving him to trace a simple diagram by looking at its reflection in a mirror. H.M., of course, never remembers seeing or completing this task, though his performance is improving. H.M. also performs very well on cued-recall tasks. H.M. was even able to hold a simple job at the residential home where he lived, though he couldn't describe his job after working there for 6 months. H.M. is able to hold information in short-term memory for very short periods of time, showing that his working memory seems to be unaffected by the loss of his hippocampus. His main problem exists, however, in converting short-term memories into long-term memories, through a process called consolidation. <br />
<br />
<br />
== H.M.'s Contributions to Science==<br />
Studying H.M. has contributed a wealth of understanding of the organization of human memory systems. Most importantly it seems that the hippocampus is required for the formation of long-term memories but not for short-term recall. Also, once the long-term memory is permanently stored, the hippocampus is no longer required, for memory maintenance or retrieval. Furthermore, skill learning seems to be a special kind of long-term memory, not requiring the hippocampus.<br />
<br />
<br />
== H.M. Today ==<br />
H.M. is currently living in a nursing home in Hartford, CT., and he occasionally travels to MIT for testing. He enjoys doing crossword puzzles and watching detective shows on television. Though he cannot really make any friends, since he can't remember them from ten minutes to the next, he does seem to have a sense of humor about his condition (taken from his autobiography):<br />
<br />
When walking down the corridor at M.I.T. with Henry, Dr. Suzanne Corkin made the usual kind of small talk. "Do you know where you are, Henry?" <br />
<br />
Henry grinned. "Why, of course. I'm at M.I.T.!" <br />
<br />
Dr. Corkin was a bit surprised. "How do you know that?" <br />
<br />
Henry laughed. He pointed to a student nearby with a large M.I.T. emblazoned on his sweatshirt. "Got ya that time!" Henry said. <br />
<br />
H.M. leads a seemingly happy, yet confused life, and he never seems to know exactly how old he is (he guesses he is in his mid 30's, and is always surprised by his reflection in the mirror). He relives the grief of the death of his mother every time he hears about it, and though he doesn't remember his surgery, he knows there is something wrong with his memory. H.M. suffers from osteoporosis, a side effect of phenytoin, the anti-convulsive drug he has been taking. Otherwise, he is in very good health. Though death is of course inevitable, arrangements have already been made for post-mortem examination of his brain, which will undoubtedly reveal a great deal more about the anatomy of memory.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Outside Resources ==<br />
[http://www.psych.neu.edu/stellar/lab/people/MST/Hipp/HM.html H.M.]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Neuropsychological profiles]]</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Wisconsin_card_sort_testWisconsin card sort test2008-04-24T20:52:39Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Neuropsychological methods]]<br />
<br />
[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ABlncLQ4x4E Video Clip]</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Tower_of_Hanoi_puzzleTower of Hanoi puzzle2008-04-24T20:50:42Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Neuropsychological methods]]<br />
<br />
[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H5bCcREEL9g Video Clip]</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Korsakoff%27s_syndromeKorsakoff's syndrome2008-04-24T20:45:20Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]<br />
[http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter8/images8/8-2l.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter8/chapter8Nutritional.html&h=399&w=400&sz=148&hl=en&start=10&um=1&tbnid=OhJrGWAQUh9iBM:&tbnh=124&tbnw=124&prev=/images%3Fq%3DKorsakoff%2527s%2Bsyndrome%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DN Pictures of a Patient's Brian with Korsakoff's Syndrome]<br />
<br />
[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wDcyBXJAZNM Video Clip]<br />
== Definition ==<br />
Korsakoff's syndrome is a memory disorder caused by a deficiency of vitamin B1, also called thiamine<br />
<br />
Named after Sergei Korsakoff, the neuropsychiatris who popularized the theory<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
First mentioned in 19822 by James Jackson, a physician at Massachusetts General Hospital and professor at Boston Medical School, in a review of the peripheral neuritis of alcoholism<br />
<br />
1868 Sir Samuel Wilks, a physician at Guy's Hopital, London, gave an account of the characteristic mental symptoms in an article on alcoholic paraplegia<br />
<br />
In his doctoral thesis, Korsakoff called the condition "cerebropathia psychica toxaemica"<br />
<br />
The term Korsakoff's psychosis was introduced by Friedrich Jolly<br />
<br />
Korsakoff emphasized the association of alcoholic polyneuropathy with a specific pattern of mental disturbances by stating: "This mental disorder appears at times in the form of sharply delineated irritable weakness of the mental sphere, at times in the form of confusion with characteristic mistakes in orientation for place, time, and situation, and at times as an almost pure form of acute amnesia, where the recent memory is most severely involved, while the remote memory is well preserved¦ Some have suffered so widespread memory loss that they literally forget everything immediately."<br />
<br />
Korsakoff's psychosis was used originally to describe the combination of alcoholic polyneuropathy and characteristic mental disturbance and Korsakoff's syndrome was the non-alcoholic form with or without polyneuritis, which resulted from acquired conditions such as head injury, brain tumors, and encephalitis<br />
<br />
Blass and Gibson in 1977 identified a genetically determined disturbance of transketolase, which is a thiamine pyrophosphate-binding factor in fibroblasts<br />
<br />
Individuals who are homozygous for this defect are at an increased risk for developing thiamine deficiency in circumstances of dietary inadequacy<br />
<br />
== Causes and Symptoms ==<br />
The high calorie nature of alcohol is one of the main reasons that alcoholism leads to thiamine deficiency<br />
<br />
A large intake of alcohol substitutes alcohol for other calorie sources that contain more nutrition<br />
<br />
Food intake drops and multiple vitamin deficiencies develop as alcoholism grows<br />
<br />
It is believed that alcohol increases the body's requirement for B vitamins, while also interfering with the absorption of vitamin B1 from the intestine and impairing the body's ability to store and use B1<br />
<br />
Thiamine provides energy to the neurons of the brain in a variety of reactions<br />
<br />
As thiamine becomes unavailable, these reactions cannot be carried<br />
<br />
Because the end products of these reactions cannot be formed, substrates begin to accumulate and cause damage to the neurons<br />
<br />
The mamillary bodies and the thalamus of the diencephalon is responsible for the symptoms of this syndrome<br />
<br />
Those with Korsakoff's syndrome have difficulty with their memory<br />
<br />
Anterograde amnesia- the ability to learn new information is greatly affected, while intelligence and memory of past events is relatively unaffected<br />
<br />
Confabulation- a person with Korsakoff's syndrome fills in the gaps of their memory with fabricated or imagined information<br />
<br />
Complete unawareness of the memory defect and complete lack of worry or concern when it is pointed out<br />
<br />
Involves neuronal loss (damage to neurons), gliosis (result of damage to supporting cells of the central nervous system), and hemorrhage (bleeding in mammillary bodies)<br />
<br />
Other symptoms may include delirium, anxiety, fear, depression, confusion, delusions and insomnia; painful extremities, sometimes bilateral wrist drop, more frequent bilateral foot drop with pain or pressure over the long nerves<br />
<br />
== Diagnosis ==<br />
An individual diagnosed with alcoholism and a sudden onset of memory difficulties should be tested for Korsakoff's syndrome<br />
<br />
No specific test to diagnose this syndrome<br />
<br />
A careful examination of a patient's mental state could reveal the syndrome<br />
<br />
Check the patient's retention of factual information and the ability to learn new information<br />
<br />
A patient just recovering from Wenicke's syndrome who begins to display memory difficulties is likely to have developed Korsakoff's syndrome<br />
<br />
== Treatment ==<br />
Immediate administration of thiamine<br />
<br />
Any individual, regardless of the diagnosis of Korsakoff's syndrome, should receive thiamine<br />
<br />
== Prognosis ==<br />
15-20% of all patients hospitalized for Wenicke's syndrome will die of Korsakoff's syndrome<br />
<br />
Half of those who survive the syndrome will have permanent ataxia (difficulty walking)<br />
<br />
The paralysis of the eye muscles almost always have complete recovery with thiamine treatment<br />
<br />
Improvement in symptoms can take months of thiamine replacement<br />
<br />
Memory-impaired for the rest of their lives<br />
<br />
Usually requires a supervised living situation<br />
<br />
== Prevention ==<br />
Maintaining a diet with sufficient intake of thiamine<br />
<br />
Supplement an inadequate diet with vitamin preparations<br />
<br />
Treat the underlying alcohol addiction<br />
<br />
== Works Cited==<br />
[http://www.healthatoz.com/healthatoz/Atoz/common/standard/transform.jsp?requestURI=/healthatoz/Atoz/ency/korsakoffs_syndrome.jsp Health A to Z]<br />
<br />
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korsakoff's_syndrome Korsakoff's Syndrome]<br />
<br />
[http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/wernicke_korsakoff/wernicke-korsakoff.htm Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome Information Page]</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Alzheimer%27s_DiseaseAlzheimer's Disease2008-04-24T20:43:20Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]<br />
<br />
<br />
== Living with Alzheimer's Disease ==<br />
[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=76P6Xm3WsEM Video Clip]<br />
<br />
== Outside Resources ==<br />
<br />
[http://www.medicinenet.com/alzheimers_disease/article.htm Medicine Net.com]<br />
<br />
[http://www.ahaf.org/alzdis/about/adabout.htm Alzheimer's Disease]<br />
<br />
[http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v375/n6534/abs/375754a0.html Cloning of a Gene Bearing Missense Mutations in Early-Onset Famial Alzheimer's Disease]<br />
<br />
[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/297/5580/353?ijkey=QraVG5j2CVTnQ&keytype=ref&siteid=sci The Amyloid Hypothesis of Alzheimer's Disease: Progress and Problems on the Road to Therapeutics]</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Phantom_limbsPhantom limbs2008-04-24T20:40:26Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]<br />
<br />
<br />
== Outside Resources ==<br />
<br />
[http://www.vanderbilt.edu/News/news/apr00/nr26.html Neuronal Growth in the Brain May Explain Phantom Limb Syndrome]</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Parkinson%27s_DiseaseParkinson's Disease2008-04-24T20:38:44Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]<br />
'''Parkinson's disease''' <br />
Also called: Paralysis agitans, Shaking palsy<br />
Parkinson's disease (PD) affects neurons in the part of the brain that controls muscle movement. PD belongs to a group of conditions called motor system disorders. These disorders are categorized by the loss of neurons that make dopamine (chemical that sends signals to create movement). These cells either die or do not work properly. Symptoms of PD include:<br />
<br />
-tremors or trembling in hands, arms, legs, jaw, and face<br />
-stiffness of the limbs and trunk<br />
-movement slows<br />
-posture instable, impaired balance and coordination<br />
<br />
[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CkqHih3ug2g Video of PARKINSON'S DISEASE]<br />
<br />
Other symptoms may include:<br />
<br />
-depression and other emotional changes<br />
-difficulty in swallowing<br />
-chewing<br />
-speaking<br />
-urinary problems or constipation<br />
-skin problems<br />
-disrupted sleep cycle<br />
<br />
These symptoms cause one to have trouble walking, talking and interfere with many other daily activities. Though it usually starts to affect people over 50 symptoms may start earlier. Early symptoms are subtle but progress over time, varying between patients.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Outside Resources ==<br />
<br />
[http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/parkinsons_disease/parkinsons_disease.htm Parkinson's Disease Information Page]<br />
<br />
[http://www.neurologychannel.com/parkinsonsdisease/index.shtml Neurology Channel]</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Parkinson%27s_DiseaseParkinson's Disease2008-04-24T20:37:45Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]<br />
'''Parkinson's disease''' <br />
Also called: Paralysis agitans, Shaking palsy<br />
Parkinson's disease (PD) affects neurons in the part of the brain that controls muscle movement. PD belongs to a group of conditions called motor system disorders. These disorders are categorized by the loss of neurons that make dopamine (chemical that sends signals to create movement). These cells either die or do not work properly. Symptoms of PD include:<br />
<br />
-tremors or trembling in hands, arms, legs, jaw, and face<br />
-stiffness of the limbs and trunk<br />
-movement slows<br />
-posture instable, impaired balance and coordination<br />
<br />
[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CkqHih3ug2g Video of PARKINSON'S DISEASE]<br />
<br />
Other symptoms may include:<br />
<br />
-depression and other emotional changes<br />
-difficulty in swallowing<br />
-chewing<br />
-speaking<br />
-urinary problems or constipation<br />
-skin problems<br />
-disrupted sleep cycle<br />
<br />
These symptoms cause one to have trouble walking, talking and interfere with many other daily activities. Though it usually starts to affect people over 50 symptoms may start earlier. Early symptoms are subtle but progress over time, varying between patients.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Outside Resources ==<br />
<br />
[http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/parkinsons_disease/parkinsons_disease.htm Parkinson's Disease Information Page]</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Alzheimer%27s_DiseaseAlzheimer's Disease2008-04-24T20:35:27Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]<br />
<br />
<br />
== Outside Resources ==<br />
<br />
[http://www.medicinenet.com/alzheimers_disease/article.htm Medicine Net.com]<br />
<br />
[http://www.ahaf.org/alzdis/about/adabout.htm Alzheimer's Disease]<br />
<br />
[http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v375/n6534/abs/375754a0.html Cloning of a Gene Bearing Missense Mutations in Early-Onset Famial Alzheimer's Disease]<br />
<br />
[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/297/5580/353?ijkey=QraVG5j2CVTnQ&keytype=ref&siteid=sci The Amyloid Hypothesis of Alzheimer's Disease: Progress and Problems on the Road to Therapeutics]</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Alzheimer%27s_DiseaseAlzheimer's Disease2008-04-24T20:30:42Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]<br />
<br />
<br />
== Outside Resources ==<br />
<br />
[http://www.medicinenet.com/alzheimers_disease/article.htm Medicine Net.com]<br />
<br />
[http://www.ahaf.org/alzdis/about/adabout.htm Alzheimer's Disease]</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Alzheimer%27s_DiseaseAlzheimer's Disease2008-04-24T20:29:43Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]<br />
<br />
<br />
== Outside Resources ==<br />
<br />
[http://www.medicinenet.com/alzheimers_disease/article.htm Medicine Net.com]</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/BlindsightBlindsight2008-04-24T20:27:57Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]<br />
<br />
Blindsight is an extraordinary neuropsychological phenomenon that occurs after certain kinds of brain lesions, primarily in area V1, causing blindness. It is the ability to respond accurately (better than chance) to visual inputs given, without having the feeling or ability to see them. There are two types of Blindsight. The first type involves people that have no awareness of any objects projected into their blind region, but are able to correctly identify where the object is when pressed to do so. The second type of Blindsight involves people who have awareness of movement in their blind visual field, and are able to accurately ‘guess’ where the object is located. <br />
<br />
The primary visual cortex is used for conscious vision. Damage to area V1, where the primary visual cortex is located, causes blindness in the opposite visual field of the hemisphere in which the damage was done. For Blindsight to be understood, vision must be understood. Visual processing occurs when ganglion cells of the retina send axons through the optic nerve to the lateral geniculate nucleus. The lateral geniculate nucleus is located in the thalamus and is a primary processor of visual information. It receives the visual information and then projects it to the primary visual cortex, or V1. Information from V1 is then sent to the secondary visual cortex and onto the occipital areas of the ventral and dorsal streams. The dorsal stream projects to the parietal lobe and the ventral stream sends information to the temporal lobe. Damage to the dorsal stream(area’s V3 and V5) causes cerebral akinetopsia (V5) and Balint’s syndrome. Damage to the ventral stream (area’s V4 and V8) causes cerebral achromotopsia (V4) and visual agnosia (V8). Thus it is clear that when there is damage to V1, the visual information processing stream is interrupted and visual deficits result. It is hypothesized that Blindsight and normal vision are controlled by other sections of the brain as a backup to the primary visual cortex. The superior colliculus, for instance, has been proven to take over some of the functions of the primary visual cortex. The superior colliculus supplies blindsighted individuals with the intrinsic feeling of where the object is in their blind visual field. It is used as a reflex for orienting eye and head movements towards something that is seen or heard. The only brain region though that allows for complete sight, local orientation, spatial frequency, and color properties within small receptive fields, is the primary visual cortex.<br />
<br />
== Blindtouch ==<br />
<br />
[http://espra.risc.cnrs.fr/PAILLARD%20165-localization-without-content%201983.pdf Localization without Content]</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Halstead-Reitan_batteryHalstead-Reitan battery2008-04-24T20:21:10Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Neuropsychological methods]]<br />
<br />
<br />
== Definition ==<br />
Fixed set of eight tests used to evaluate brain and nervous system functioning in individuals aged 15 years and older<br />
<br />
Children's versions are the Halstead Neuropsychological Test Battery for Older Children (ages 9-14) and the Reitan Indiana Neuropsychological Test Battery (ages 5-8)<br />
<br />
== Purpose ==<br />
Evaluates a wide range of nervous system and brain functions including visual input, auditory input, tactual input, verbal communication, spatial perception, sequential perception, the ability to analyze information, form mental concepts, make judgements, motor output, attention, concentration, and memory<br />
<br />
Used to evaluate individuals with suspected brain damage<br />
<br />
Provides useful information regarding the cause of damage, which part of the brain was damaged, whether the damage occurred during childhood development , and if the damage is getting worse, staying the same, or getting better<br />
<br />
The information gathered about the severity of impairment and areas of personal strengths can be used to develop plans for patient rehabilitation and care<br />
<br />
== Precautions ==<br />
Requires administration by a professional examiner and interpretation by a trained psychologist<br />
<br />
Test results are affected by the examinee's age, education level, intellectual ability, gender, and ethnicity, all of which need to be taken into account when analyzing the results<br />
<br />
Fixed battery of tests, which means that unnecessary information may be gathered and some important information may be missed<br />
<br />
Requires 5-6 hours to complete, patience, stamina, and cost<br />
<br />
Criticized because it does not include specific tests of memory; instead, memory is evaluated within the context of other tests<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
The Halstead-Reitan battery was created by Ward Halstead and Ralph Reitan<br />
<br />
The creation of the test was based on studies of patients with neurologic impairments at the University of Chicago<br />
<br />
Halstead recognized the need for an evaluation of brain functioning that was more extensive than intelligence testing<br />
<br />
Initially Halstead chose a set of 10 tests, all of which, except 3, are included in the current Halstead-Reitan battery<br />
<br />
Ralph Reitan was one of Halstead's students who contributed to the battery by researching the tests' ability to identify neurological problems<br />
<br />
Reitan diagnosed 8,000 patients using only their test results, without meeting the patients or knowing anything about their background, which provided support for the effectiveness of the battery<br />
<br />
Reitan adapted the original battery by including additional tests<br />
<br />
The Halstead-Reitan has been researched more than any other neuropsychological test battery<br />
<br />
Research supports the ability of the battery to detect impairment accurately in a large range of neuropsychological functions<br />
<br />
8 core tests<br />
<br />
== Category Test ==<br />
<br />
Total of 208 pictures consisting of geometric figures are presented<br />
Individuals are asked to decide whether they are reminded of the number 1, 2, 3, or 4 for each picture and press a key corresponding to their choice<br />
<br />
If the individual chooses correctly a chime sounds and if they choose incorrectly a buzzer sounds<br />
<br />
The pictures are presented in 7 subtests<br />
<br />
The key to the category test is that one principle or common characteristic underlies each subtest<br />
<br />
The numbers 1-4 represent the possible principles<br />
<br />
If the subject recognizes the correct principle in one picture they will respond correctly for the remaining pictures in that subtest<br />
<br />
The next subtest may have the same or different underlying principle and the subject must once again try to determine the principle using the feedback of the chime and buzzer<br />
<br />
The last subtest contains two underlying principles <br />
<br />
Test takes 1 hour, but individuals with severe brain damage may take up to 2 hours<br />
<br />
Considered to be the battery's most effect test for detecting brain damage<br />
<br />
Does not help determine where the problem is occurring in the brain<br />
<br />
Evaluates the ability to draw specific conclusions from general information<br />
<br />
Also aids in detecting one's ability to solve complex and unique problems and one's ability to learn from experience<br />
<br />
The children's versions consist of 80 items and 5 subtests for young children and 168 and 6 subtests for older children<br />
<br />
Scoring involves recording the number of errors<br />
<br />
Scores above 41 are considered indicative of brain impairment for ages 15-45<br />
<br />
Scores above 46 indicate impairment for ages 46 and older<br />
Recommended cutoffs vary depending on age and education level<br />
<br />
== Tactual Performance Test ==<br />
Board containing 10 cut-out shapes and ten wooden blocks matching those shapes are placed in front of a blindfolded individual <br />
<br />
Instructed to use only their dominant hand to place the blocks in their appropriate space on the board<br />
<br />
Same procedure repeated using the non-dominant hand only<br />
<br />
Same procedure repeated using both hands<br />
<br />
Board, blocks, and then blindfold are removed<br />
<br />
The individual is then asked to draw the board and the shapes in their proper locations from memory only<br />
<br />
Takes 15-50 minutes to complete<br />
<br />
Time limit of 15 minutes per trial<br />
<br />
Evaluates sensory ability, memory for shapes and spatial location, motor functions, and the brain's ability to transfer information between its two hemispheres<br />
<br />
Detection of brain damage<br />
<br />
Helps to determine which side of the brain damage may have occurred<br />
<br />
For children under 15, only 6 shapes are used<br />
<br />
Scoring involves the time to complete each of the 3 blindfolded trials and the total time for all trials combined, the number of shapes recalled, and the number of shapes drawn in their correct locations<br />
<br />
Trial for the non-dominant hand should be 20 to 30 percent faster than the trial for the dominant hand because of practice effects<br />
<br />
If the non-dominant hand is slower or more than 30 percent faster, brain damage is possible<br />
<br />
Injuries of the arms, shoulders, or hands can also affect performance<br />
<br />
Scores are adjusted depending on education level and age<br />
<br />
== Trail Making Test ==<br />
Consists of 2 parts<br />
<br />
Part A: 25 numbered circles randomly arranged and individuals are instructed to draw lines between the circles in increasing sequential order until they reach the circle labeled "end"<br />
<br />
Part B: A page with circles containing the letters A through L and 13 numbered circles intermixed and randomly arranged and individuals are instructed to connect the circles by drawing lines alternating between numbers and letters in sequential order, until they reach the circle labeled "end"<br />
<br />
If mistakes are made, they are quickly brought to the individuals attention and they continue from the last correct circle<br />
<br />
Test takes 5-10 minutes to complete<br />
<br />
Evaluates information processing speed, visual scanning ability, integration of visual and motor functions, letter and number recognition and sequencing, and the ability to maintain two different trains of though<br />
<br />
A Color Trails Test is used for children and individuals of different cultures in which colors are used instead of numbers and letters<br />
<br />
Scoring is the time to complete each part<br />
<br />
Errors increase the total time<br />
<br />
For adults, scores above 40 seconds for Part A and 91 seconds for Part B indicate brain impairment<br />
<br />
However it is important to consider other variables such as age when scoring<br />
<br />
== Finger Tapping Test ==<br />
Subjects place their dominant hand palm down, fingers extended, with the index finger resting on a lever that is attached to a counting device<br />
<br />
They are then instructed to tap their index finger as quickly as possible for 10 seconds while keeping the hand and arm stationary<br />
<br />
The trial is repeated 5-10 times until the examiner collects counts for 5 consecutive trials that are within 5 taps of each other<br />
<br />
A practice session is given before the test<br />
<br />
A brief rest is given between each trial and a 1-2 minute rest is given every third trial<br />
<br />
The procedure is repeated with the non-dominant hand<br />
<br />
Takes approximately 10 minutes to complete the test<br />
<br />
The children’s version uses an electronic tapper instead of a manual one<br />
<br />
The test measures motor speed and helps to determine particular areas of the brain that may be damaged<br />
<br />
To score the examiner calculates an average number of taps per trial for each of the 5 accepted trials<br />
<br />
The dominant hand should be 10% better than the non-dominant hand, which doesn’t always occur in left-handed individuals<br />
<br />
Males and younger individuals perform better than females and older people<br />
<br />
Education level, intelligence, fatigue, depression, and injuries to the shoulders, arms, or hands should also be considered when scoring<br />
<br />
Must be interpreted in combination with other tests in the battery<br />
<br />
== Rhythm Test ==<br />
30 pairs of tape-recorded, non-verbal sounds are presented <br />
<br />
For each pair, a subject must decide if the 2 sounds are the same or different<br />
<br />
The pairs of sounds are grouped into 3 subtests<br />
<br />
Evaluates auditory attention and concentration<br />
<br />
Also evaluates the ability to discriminate between non-verbal sounds<br />
<br />
Helps detect brain damage, but not the location of the damage<br />
<br />
A subject must have adequate hearing abilities to complete this test<br />
<br />
Scoring is based on the number of correct item<br />
<br />
The higher the score the less brain damage a subject has<br />
<br />
Scores must be interpreted with the scores from other tests<br />
<br />
The children’s version of this battery does not include this test<br />
<br />
== Speech Sounds Perception Test ==<br />
60 tape-recorded nonsense syllables containing the sound “ee” are presented<br />
<br />
After each syllable the subjects must underline the spelling that represents the syllable they heard from a list of 4 written syllables<br />
<br />
The test evaluates auditory attention and concentration<br />
<br />
The test also tests the subject’s ability to discriminate between verbal sounds<br />
<br />
The results of the test provides information about the specific areas of brain damage a subject may have<br />
<br />
The test can also indicate attention deficits or hearing loss<br />
<br />
Scoring and interpretation are similar to the Rhythm Test<br />
<br />
The Children’s version contains fewer syllable choices<br />
<br />
== Reitan-Indiana Aphasia Screening Test ==<br />
Subjects are present with a variety of questions and tasks that are considered easy for someone without aphasia (the loss of ability to understand or use written or spoken language due to brain damage or deterioration)<br />
<br />
The test includes verbally naming pictures, writing the name of a picture without saying the name aloud, reading printed material of increasing length, repeating words stated by the examiner, simple arithmetic problems, drawing shapes without lifting the pencil, and placing one hand to an area on the opposite side of the body<br />
<br />
The test evaluates language-related difficulties, right/left confusion, and non-verbal tasks<br />
<br />
This is a screening test aimed to detect possible signs of aphasia that may require further evaluation<br />
<br />
As a result, a standardized scoring is not used<br />
<br />
== Reitan-Klove Sensory-Perceptual Examination ==<br />
Detects if an individual is unable to perceive stimulation on one side of the body when both sides are stimulated simultaneously<br />
<br />
Includes tactile, auditory, and visual components <br />
<br />
Involves the subjects ability to specify whether touch, sound, or visible movement is occurring on the right, left, or both sides of the body<br />
<br />
Also investigates a subjects ability to recall numbers assigned to particular fingers<br />
<br />
Examines the subjects capacity to identify numbers written on their fingertips while their eyes are closed<br />
<br />
Furthermore, the test looks at the subject’s ability to identify the shape of a wooden block placed in one hand by pointing to its shape on a board with the opposite hand<br />
<br />
== Ancillary Test ==<br />
Tests that may be chosen to be included by an examiner based on the difficulties an individual is experiencing<br />
<br />
Common tests include the Grip Strength Test, the Reitan-Klove Lateral Dominance Examination, the California Verbal Learning Test, the Grooved Pegboard Test, the Wechsler Memory Scale, the Bushke Selective Reminding Test, the Rey Complex Figure Test, the Wide Range Achievement Test, The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scaleor Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children, the Rey Auditory Verbal Memory Test, the Test of Memory and Learning, and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory<br />
<br />
== Results ==<br />
When interpreting the results of the battery, an examiner must look at the overall performance on the battery, performance on individual tests, and indications of lateralization and localization<br />
<br />
After analyzing the results, a psychologist can diagnose the type of condition present, predict whether the patient will stay the same, get better, or get worse, and make recommendations regarding treatment, care, or rehabilitation<br />
<br />
== Validity ==<br />
The battery has been shown to discriminate normal controls from patients with brain damage with considerable accuracy (84-98%)<br />
<br />
The battery has been shown to differentiate between organic neurological from normal populations, organic neurological from functional psychiatric populations, focal from diffuse neurological disease, regional focal cerebral dysfunction by major zones, and the etiological conditions associated with individual differences in outcome pattern<br />
<br />
== Works Cited==<br />
[http://www.nldontheweb.org/loring-meador.htm NLD on the Web]<br />
<br />
[http://www.healthline.com/galecontent/halstead-reitan-battery Health Line]<br />
<br />
[http://www.minddisorders.com/Flu-Inv/Halstead-Reitan-Battery.html Halstead-Reitan Battery]</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Halstead-Reitan_batteryHalstead-Reitan battery2008-04-24T20:19:05Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Neuropsychological methods]]<br />
<br />
<br />
== Definition ==<br />
Fixed set of eight tests used to evaluate brain and nervous system functioning in individuals aged 15 years and older<br />
<br />
Children's versions are the Halstead Neuropsychological Test Battery for Older Children (ages 9-14) and the Reitan Indiana Neuropsychological Test Battery (ages 5-8)<br />
<br />
== Purpose ==<br />
Evaluates a wide range of nervous system and brain functions including visual input, auditory input, tactual input, verbal communication, spatial perception, sequential perception, the ability to analyze information, form mental concepts, make judgements, motor output, attention, concentration, and memory<br />
<br />
Used to evaluate individuals with suspected brain damage<br />
<br />
Provides useful information regarding the cause of damage, which part of the brain was damaged, whether the damage occurred during childhood development , and if the damage is getting worse, staying the same, or getting better<br />
<br />
The information gathered about the severity of impairment and areas of personal strengths can be used to develop plans for patient rehabilitation and care<br />
<br />
== Precautions ==<br />
Requires administration by a professional examiner and interpretation by a trained psychologist<br />
<br />
Test results are affected by the examinee's age, education level, intellectual ability, gender, and ethnicity, all of which need to be taken into account when analyzing the results<br />
<br />
Fixed battery of tests, which means that unnecessary information may be gathered and some important information may be missed<br />
<br />
Requires 5-6 hours to complete, patience, stamina, and cost<br />
<br />
Criticized because it does not include specific tests of memory; instead, memory is evaluated within the context of other tests<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
The Halstead-Reitan battery was created by Ward Halstead and Ralph Reitan<br />
<br />
The creation of the test was based on studies of patients with neurologic impairments at the University of Chicago<br />
<br />
Halstead recognized the need for an evaluation of brain functioning that was more extensive than intelligence testing<br />
<br />
Initially Halstead chose a set of 10 tests, all of which, except 3, are included in the current Halstead-Reitan battery<br />
<br />
Ralph Reitan was one of Halstead's students who contributed to the battery by researching the tests' ability to identify neurological problems<br />
<br />
Reitan diagnosed 8,000 patients using only their test results, without meeting the patients or knowing anything about their background, which provided support for the effectiveness of the battery<br />
<br />
Reitan adapted the original battery by including additional tests<br />
<br />
The Halstead-Reitan has been researched more than any other neuropsychological test battery<br />
<br />
Research supports the ability of the battery to detect impairment accurately in a large range of neuropsychological functions<br />
<br />
8 core tests<br />
<br />
== Category Test ==<br />
<br />
Total of 208 pictures consisting of geometric figures are presented<br />
Individuals are asked to decide whether they are reminded of the number 1, 2, 3, or 4 for each picture and press a key corresponding to their choice<br />
<br />
If the individual chooses correctly a chime sounds and if they choose incorrectly a buzzer sounds<br />
<br />
The pictures are presented in 7 subtests<br />
<br />
The key to the category test is that one principle or common characteristic underlies each subtest<br />
<br />
The numbers 1-4 represent the possible principles<br />
<br />
If the subject recognizes the correct principle in one picture they will respond correctly for the remaining pictures in that subtest<br />
<br />
The next subtest may have the same or different underlying principle and the subject must once again try to determine the principle using the feedback of the chime and buzzer<br />
<br />
The last subtest contains two underlying principles <br />
<br />
Test takes 1 hour, but individuals with severe brain damage may take up to 2 hours<br />
<br />
Considered to be the battery's most effect test for detecting brain damage<br />
<br />
Does not help determine where the problem is occurring in the brain<br />
<br />
Evaluates the ability to draw specific conclusions from general information<br />
<br />
Also aids in detecting one's ability to solve complex and unique problems and one's ability to learn from experience<br />
<br />
The children's versions consist of 80 items and 5 subtests for young children and 168 and 6 subtests for older children<br />
<br />
Scoring involves recording the number of errors<br />
<br />
Scores above 41 are considered indicative of brain impairment for ages 15-45<br />
<br />
Scores above 46 indicate impairment for ages 46 and older<br />
Recommended cutoffs vary depending on age and education level<br />
<br />
== Tactual Performance Test ==<br />
Board containing 10 cut-out shapes and ten wooden blocks matching those shapes are placed in front of a blindfolded individual <br />
<br />
Instructed to use only their dominant hand to place the blocks in their appropriate space on the board<br />
<br />
Same procedure repeated using the non-dominant hand only<br />
<br />
Same procedure repeated using both hands<br />
<br />
Board, blocks, and then blindfold are removed<br />
<br />
The individual is then asked to draw the board and the shapes in their proper locations from memory only<br />
<br />
Takes 15-50 minutes to complete<br />
<br />
Time limit of 15 minutes per trial<br />
<br />
Evaluates sensory ability, memory for shapes and spatial location, motor functions, and the brain's ability to transfer information between its two hemispheres<br />
<br />
Detection of brain damage<br />
<br />
Helps to determine which side of the brain damage may have occurred<br />
<br />
For children under 15, only 6 shapes are used<br />
<br />
Scoring involves the time to complete each of the 3 blindfolded trials and the total time for all trials combined, the number of shapes recalled, and the number of shapes drawn in their correct locations<br />
<br />
Trial for the non-dominant hand should be 20 to 30 percent faster than the trial for the dominant hand because of practice effects<br />
<br />
If the non-dominant hand is slower or more than 30 percent faster, brain damage is possible<br />
<br />
Injuries of the arms, shoulders, or hands can also affect performance<br />
<br />
Scores are adjusted depending on education level and age<br />
<br />
== Trail Making Test ==<br />
Consists of 2 parts<br />
<br />
Part A: 25 numbered circles randomly arranged and individuals are instructed to draw lines between the circles in increasing sequential order until they reach the circle labeled "end"<br />
<br />
Part B: A page with circles containing the letters A through L and 13 numbered circles intermixed and randomly arranged and individuals are instructed to connect the circles by drawing lines alternating between numbers and letters in sequential order, until they reach the circle labeled "end"<br />
<br />
If mistakes are made, they are quickly brought to the individuals attention and they continue from the last correct circle<br />
<br />
Test takes 5-10 minutes to complete<br />
<br />
Evaluates information processing speed, visual scanning ability, integration of visual and motor functions, letter and number recognition and sequencing, and the ability to maintain two different trains of though<br />
<br />
A Color Trails Test is used for children and individuals of different cultures in which colors are used instead of numbers and letters<br />
<br />
Scoring is the time to complete each part<br />
<br />
Errors increase the total time<br />
<br />
For adults, scores above 40 seconds for Part A and 91 seconds for Part B indicate brain impairment<br />
<br />
However it is important to consider other variables such as age when scoring<br />
<br />
== Finger Tapping Test ==<br />
Subjects place their dominant hand palm down, fingers extended, with the index finger resting on a lever that is attached to a counting device<br />
<br />
They are then instructed to tap their index finger as quickly as possible for 10 seconds while keeping the hand and arm stationary<br />
<br />
The trial is repeated 5-10 times until the examiner collects counts for 5 consecutive trials that are within 5 taps of each other<br />
<br />
A practice session is given before the test<br />
<br />
A brief rest is given between each trial and a 1-2 minute rest is given every third trial<br />
<br />
The procedure is repeated with the non-dominant hand<br />
<br />
Takes approximately 10 minutes to complete the test<br />
<br />
The children’s version uses an electronic tapper instead of a manual one<br />
<br />
The test measures motor speed and helps to determine particular areas of the brain that may be damaged<br />
<br />
To score the examiner calculates an average number of taps per trial for each of the 5 accepted trials<br />
<br />
The dominant hand should be 10% better than the non-dominant hand, which doesn’t always occur in left-handed individuals<br />
<br />
Males and younger individuals perform better than females and older people<br />
<br />
Education level, intelligence, fatigue, depression, and injuries to the shoulders, arms, or hands should also be considered when scoring<br />
<br />
Must be interpreted in combination with other tests in the battery<br />
<br />
== Rhythm Test ==<br />
30 pairs of tape-recorded, non-verbal sounds are presented <br />
<br />
For each pair, a subject must decide if the 2 sounds are the same or different<br />
<br />
The pairs of sounds are grouped into 3 subtests<br />
<br />
Evaluates auditory attention and concentration<br />
<br />
Also evaluates the ability to discriminate between non-verbal sounds<br />
<br />
Helps detect brain damage, but not the location of the damage<br />
<br />
A subject must have adequate hearing abilities to complete this test<br />
<br />
Scoring is based on the number of correct item<br />
<br />
The higher the score the less brain damage a subject has<br />
<br />
Scores must be interpreted with the scores from other tests<br />
<br />
The children’s version of this battery does not include this test<br />
<br />
== Speech Sounds Perception Test ==<br />
60 tape-recorded nonsense syllables containing the sound “ee” are presented<br />
<br />
After each syllable the subjects must underline the spelling that represents the syllable they heard from a list of 4 written syllables<br />
<br />
The test evaluates auditory attention and concentration<br />
<br />
The test also tests the subject’s ability to discriminate between verbal sounds<br />
<br />
The results of the test provides information about the specific areas of brain damage a subject may have<br />
<br />
The test can also indicate attention deficits or hearing loss<br />
<br />
Scoring and interpretation are similar to the Rhythm Test<br />
<br />
The Children’s version contains fewer syllable choices<br />
<br />
== Reitan-Indiana Aphasia Screening Test ==<br />
Subjects are present with a variety of questions and tasks that are considered easy for someone without aphasia (the loss of ability to understand or use written or spoken language due to brain damage or deterioration)<br />
<br />
The test includes verbally naming pictures, writing the name of a picture without saying the name aloud, reading printed material of increasing length, repeating words stated by the examiner, simple arithmetic problems, drawing shapes without lifting the pencil, and placing one hand to an area on the opposite side of the body<br />
<br />
The test evaluates language-related difficulties, right/left confusion, and non-verbal tasks<br />
<br />
This is a screening test aimed to detect possible signs of aphasia that may require further evaluation<br />
<br />
As a result, a standardized scoring is not used<br />
<br />
== Reitan-Klove Sensory-Perceptual Examination ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Ancillary Test ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Results ==<br />
<br />
== Works Cited==<br />
[http://www.nldontheweb.org/loring-meador.htm NLD on the Web]<br />
<br />
[http://www.healthline.com/galecontent/halstead-reitan-battery Health Line]<br />
<br />
[http://www.minddisorders.com/Flu-Inv/Halstead-Reitan-Battery.html Halstead-Reitan Battery]</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Halstead-Reitan_batteryHalstead-Reitan battery2008-04-24T20:17:46Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Neuropsychological methods]]<br />
<br />
<br />
== Definition ==<br />
Fixed set of eight tests used to evaluate brain and nervous system functioning in individuals aged 15 years and older<br />
<br />
Children's versions are the Halstead Neuropsychological Test Battery for Older Children (ages 9-14) and the Reitan Indiana Neuropsychological Test Battery (ages 5-8)<br />
<br />
== Purpose ==<br />
Evaluates a wide range of nervous system and brain functions including visual input, auditory input, tactual input, verbal communication, spatial perception, sequential perception, the ability to analyze information, form mental concepts, make judgements, motor output, attention, concentration, and memory<br />
<br />
Used to evaluate individuals with suspected brain damage<br />
<br />
Provides useful information regarding the cause of damage, which part of the brain was damaged, whether the damage occurred during childhood development , and if the damage is getting worse, staying the same, or getting better<br />
<br />
The information gathered about the severity of impairment and areas of personal strengths can be used to develop plans for patient rehabilitation and care<br />
<br />
== Precautions ==<br />
Requires administration by a professional examiner and interpretation by a trained psychologist<br />
<br />
Test results are affected by the examinee's age, education level, intellectual ability, gender, and ethnicity, all of which need to be taken into account when analyzing the results<br />
<br />
Fixed battery of tests, which means that unnecessary information may be gathered and some important information may be missed<br />
<br />
Requires 5-6 hours to complete, patience, stamina, and cost<br />
<br />
Criticized because it does not include specific tests of memory; instead, memory is evaluated within the context of other tests<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
The Halstead-Reitan battery was created by Ward Halstead and Ralph Reitan<br />
<br />
The creation of the test was based on studies of patients with neurologic impairments at the University of Chicago<br />
<br />
Halstead recognized the need for an evaluation of brain functioning that was more extensive than intelligence testing<br />
<br />
Initially Halstead chose a set of 10 tests, all of which, except 3, are included in the current Halstead-Reitan battery<br />
<br />
Ralph Reitan was one of Halstead's students who contributed to the battery by researching the tests' ability to identify neurological problems<br />
<br />
Reitan diagnosed 8,000 patients using only their test results, without meeting the patients or knowing anything about their background, which provided support for the effectiveness of the battery<br />
<br />
Reitan adapted the original battery by including additional tests<br />
<br />
The Halstead-Reitan has been researched more than any other neuropsychological test battery<br />
<br />
Research supports the ability of the battery to detect impairment accurately in a large range of neuropsychological functions<br />
<br />
8 core tests<br />
<br />
== Category Test ==<br />
<br />
Total of 208 pictures consisting of geometric figures are presented<br />
Individuals are asked to decide whether they are reminded of the number 1, 2, 3, or 4 for each picture and press a key corresponding to their choice<br />
<br />
If the individual chooses correctly a chime sounds and if they choose incorrectly a buzzer sounds<br />
<br />
The pictures are presented in 7 subtests<br />
<br />
The key to the category test is that one principle or common characteristic underlies each subtest<br />
<br />
The numbers 1-4 represent the possible principles<br />
<br />
If the subject recognizes the correct principle in one picture they will respond correctly for the remaining pictures in that subtest<br />
<br />
The next subtest may have the same or different underlying principle and the subject must once again try to determine the principle using the feedback of the chime and buzzer<br />
<br />
The last subtest contains two underlying principles <br />
<br />
Test takes 1 hour, but individuals with severe brain damage may take up to 2 hours<br />
<br />
Considered to be the battery's most effect test for detecting brain damage<br />
<br />
Does not help determine where the problem is occurring in the brain<br />
<br />
Evaluates the ability to draw specific conclusions from general information<br />
<br />
Also aids in detecting one's ability to solve complex and unique problems and one's ability to learn from experience<br />
<br />
The children's versions consist of 80 items and 5 subtests for young children and 168 and 6 subtests for older children<br />
<br />
Scoring involves recording the number of errors<br />
<br />
Scores above 41 are considered indicative of brain impairment for ages 15-45<br />
<br />
Scores above 46 indicate impairment for ages 46 and older<br />
Recommended cutoffs vary depending on age and education level<br />
<br />
== Tactual Performance Test ==<br />
Board containing 10 cut-out shapes and ten wooden blocks matching those shapes are placed in front of a blindfolded individual <br />
<br />
Instructed to use only their dominant hand to place the blocks in their appropriate space on the board<br />
<br />
Same procedure repeated using the non-dominant hand only<br />
<br />
Same procedure repeated using both hands<br />
<br />
Board, blocks, and then blindfold are removed<br />
<br />
The individual is then asked to draw the board and the shapes in their proper locations from memory only<br />
<br />
Takes 15-50 minutes to complete<br />
<br />
Time limit of 15 minutes per trial<br />
<br />
Evaluates sensory ability, memory for shapes and spatial location, motor functions, and the brain's ability to transfer information between its two hemispheres<br />
<br />
Detection of brain damage<br />
<br />
Helps to determine which side of the brain damage may have occurred<br />
<br />
For children under 15, only 6 shapes are used<br />
<br />
Scoring involves the time to complete each of the 3 blindfolded trials and the total time for all trials combined, the number of shapes recalled, and the number of shapes drawn in their correct locations<br />
<br />
Trial for the non-dominant hand should be 20 to 30 percent faster than the trial for the dominant hand because of practice effects<br />
<br />
If the non-dominant hand is slower or more than 30 percent faster, brain damage is possible<br />
<br />
Injuries of the arms, shoulders, or hands can also affect performance<br />
<br />
Scores are adjusted depending on education level and age<br />
<br />
== Trail Making Test ==<br />
Consists of 2 parts<br />
<br />
Part A: 25 numbered circles randomly arranged and individuals are instructed to draw lines between the circles in increasing sequential order until they reach the circle labeled "end"<br />
<br />
Part B: A page with circles containing the letters A through L and 13 numbered circles intermixed and randomly arranged and individuals are instructed to connect the circles by drawing lines alternating between numbers and letters in sequential order, until they reach the circle labeled "end"<br />
<br />
If mistakes are made, they are quickly brought to the individuals attention and they continue from the last correct circle<br />
<br />
Test takes 5-10 minutes to complete<br />
<br />
Evaluates information processing speed, visual scanning ability, integration of visual and motor functions, letter and number recognition and sequencing, and the ability to maintain two different trains of though<br />
<br />
A Color Trails Test is used for children and individuals of different cultures in which colors are used instead of numbers and letters<br />
<br />
Scoring is the time to complete each part<br />
<br />
Errors increase the total time<br />
<br />
For adults, scores above 40 seconds for Part A and 91 seconds for Part B indicate brain impairment<br />
<br />
However it is important to consider other variables such as age when scoring<br />
<br />
== Finger Tapping Test ==<br />
Subjects place their dominant hand palm down, fingers extended, with the index finger resting on a lever that is attached to a counting device<br />
<br />
They are then instructed to tap their index finger as quickly as possible for 10 seconds while keeping the hand and arm stationary<br />
<br />
The trial is repeated 5-10 times until the examiner collects counts for 5 consecutive trials that are within 5 taps of each other<br />
<br />
A practice session is given before the test<br />
<br />
A brief rest is given between each trial and a 1-2 minute rest is given every third trial<br />
<br />
The procedure is repeated with the non-dominant hand<br />
<br />
Takes approximately 10 minutes to complete the test<br />
<br />
The children’s version uses an electronic tapper instead of a manual one<br />
<br />
The test measures motor speed and helps to determine particular areas of the brain that may be damaged<br />
<br />
To score the examiner calculates an average number of taps per trial for each of the 5 accepted trials<br />
<br />
The dominant hand should be 10% better than the non-dominant hand, which doesn’t always occur in left-handed individuals<br />
<br />
Males and younger individuals perform better than females and older people<br />
<br />
Education level, intelligence, fatigue, depression, and injuries to the shoulders, arms, or hands should also be considered when scoring<br />
<br />
Must be interpreted in combination with other tests in the battery<br />
<br />
== Rhythm Test ==<br />
30 pairs of tape-recorded, non-verbal sounds are presented <br />
<br />
For each pair, a subject must decide if the 2 sounds are the same or different<br />
<br />
The pairs of sounds are grouped into 3 subtests<br />
<br />
Evaluates auditory attention and concentration<br />
<br />
Also evaluates the ability to discriminate between non-verbal sounds<br />
<br />
Helps detect brain damage, but not the location of the damage<br />
<br />
A subject must have adequate hearing abilities to complete this test<br />
<br />
Scoring is based on the number of correct item<br />
<br />
The higher the score the less brain damage a subject has<br />
<br />
Scores must be interpreted with the scores from other tests<br />
<br />
The children’s version of this battery does not include this test<br />
<br />
<br />
== Speech Sounds Perception Test ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Reitan-Indiana Aphasia Screening Test ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Reitan-Klove Sensory-Perceptual Examination ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Ancillary Test ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Results ==<br />
<br />
== Works Cited==<br />
[http://www.nldontheweb.org/loring-meador.htm NLD on the Web]<br />
<br />
[http://www.healthline.com/galecontent/halstead-reitan-battery Health Line]<br />
<br />
[http://www.minddisorders.com/Flu-Inv/Halstead-Reitan-Battery.html Halstead-Reitan Battery]</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Halstead-Reitan_batteryHalstead-Reitan battery2008-04-24T20:16:36Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Neuropsychological methods]]<br />
<br />
<br />
== Definition ==<br />
Fixed set of eight tests used to evaluate brain and nervous system functioning in individuals aged 15 years and older<br />
<br />
Children's versions are the Halstead Neuropsychological Test Battery for Older Children (ages 9-14) and the Reitan Indiana Neuropsychological Test Battery (ages 5-8)<br />
<br />
== Purpose ==<br />
Evaluates a wide range of nervous system and brain functions including visual input, auditory input, tactual input, verbal communication, spatial perception, sequential perception, the ability to analyze information, form mental concepts, make judgements, motor output, attention, concentration, and memory<br />
<br />
Used to evaluate individuals with suspected brain damage<br />
<br />
Provides useful information regarding the cause of damage, which part of the brain was damaged, whether the damage occurred during childhood development , and if the damage is getting worse, staying the same, or getting better<br />
<br />
The information gathered about the severity of impairment and areas of personal strengths can be used to develop plans for patient rehabilitation and care<br />
<br />
== Precautions ==<br />
Requires administration by a professional examiner and interpretation by a trained psychologist<br />
<br />
Test results are affected by the examinee's age, education level, intellectual ability, gender, and ethnicity, all of which need to be taken into account when analyzing the results<br />
<br />
Fixed battery of tests, which means that unnecessary information may be gathered and some important information may be missed<br />
<br />
Requires 5-6 hours to complete, patience, stamina, and cost<br />
<br />
Criticized because it does not include specific tests of memory; instead, memory is evaluated within the context of other tests<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
The Halstead-Reitan battery was created by Ward Halstead and Ralph Reitan<br />
<br />
The creation of the test was based on studies of patients with neurologic impairments at the University of Chicago<br />
<br />
Halstead recognized the need for an evaluation of brain functioning that was more extensive than intelligence testing<br />
<br />
Initially Halstead chose a set of 10 tests, all of which, except 3, are included in the current Halstead-Reitan battery<br />
<br />
Ralph Reitan was one of Halstead's students who contributed to the battery by researching the tests' ability to identify neurological problems<br />
<br />
Reitan diagnosed 8,000 patients using only their test results, without meeting the patients or knowing anything about their background, which provided support for the effectiveness of the battery<br />
<br />
Reitan adapted the original battery by including additional tests<br />
<br />
The Halstead-Reitan has been researched more than any other neuropsychological test battery<br />
<br />
Research supports the ability of the battery to detect impairment accurately in a large range of neuropsychological functions<br />
<br />
8 core tests<br />
<br />
== Category Test ==<br />
<br />
Total of 208 pictures consisting of geometric figures are presented<br />
Individuals are asked to decide whether they are reminded of the number 1, 2, 3, or 4 for each picture and press a key corresponding to their choice<br />
<br />
If the individual chooses correctly a chime sounds and if they choose incorrectly a buzzer sounds<br />
<br />
The pictures are presented in 7 subtests<br />
<br />
The key to the category test is that one principle or common characteristic underlies each subtest<br />
<br />
The numbers 1-4 represent the possible principles<br />
<br />
If the subject recognizes the correct principle in one picture they will respond correctly for the remaining pictures in that subtest<br />
<br />
The next subtest may have the same or different underlying principle and the subject must once again try to determine the principle using the feedback of the chime and buzzer<br />
<br />
The last subtest contains two underlying principles <br />
<br />
Test takes 1 hour, but individuals with severe brain damage may take up to 2 hours<br />
<br />
Considered to be the battery's most effect test for detecting brain damage<br />
<br />
Does not help determine where the problem is occurring in the brain<br />
<br />
Evaluates the ability to draw specific conclusions from general information<br />
<br />
Also aids in detecting one's ability to solve complex and unique problems and one's ability to learn from experience<br />
<br />
The children's versions consist of 80 items and 5 subtests for young children and 168 and 6 subtests for older children<br />
<br />
Scoring involves recording the number of errors<br />
<br />
Scores above 41 are considered indicative of brain impairment for ages 15-45<br />
<br />
Scores above 46 indicate impairment for ages 46 and older<br />
Recommended cutoffs vary depending on age and education level<br />
<br />
== Tactual Performance Test ==<br />
Board containing 10 cut-out shapes and ten wooden blocks matching those shapes are placed in front of a blindfolded individual <br />
<br />
Instructed to use only their dominant hand to place the blocks in their appropriate space on the board<br />
<br />
Same procedure repeated using the non-dominant hand only<br />
<br />
Same procedure repeated using both hands<br />
<br />
Board, blocks, and then blindfold are removed<br />
<br />
The individual is then asked to draw the board and the shapes in their proper locations from memory only<br />
<br />
Takes 15-50 minutes to complete<br />
<br />
Time limit of 15 minutes per trial<br />
<br />
Evaluates sensory ability, memory for shapes and spatial location, motor functions, and the brain's ability to transfer information between its two hemispheres<br />
<br />
Detection of brain damage<br />
<br />
Helps to determine which side of the brain damage may have occurred<br />
<br />
For children under 15, only 6 shapes are used<br />
<br />
Scoring involves the time to complete each of the 3 blindfolded trials and the total time for all trials combined, the number of shapes recalled, and the number of shapes drawn in their correct locations<br />
<br />
Trial for the non-dominant hand should be 20 to 30 percent faster than the trial for the dominant hand because of practice effects<br />
<br />
If the non-dominant hand is slower or more than 30 percent faster, brain damage is possible<br />
<br />
Injuries of the arms, shoulders, or hands can also affect performance<br />
<br />
Scores are adjusted depending on education level and age<br />
<br />
== Trail Making Test ==<br />
Consists of 2 parts<br />
<br />
Part A: 25 numbered circles randomly arranged and individuals are instructed to draw lines between the circles in increasing sequential order until they reach the circle labeled "end"<br />
<br />
Part B: A page with circles containing the letters A through L and 13 numbered circles intermixed and randomly arranged and individuals are instructed to connect the circles by drawing lines alternating between numbers and letters in sequential order, until they reach the circle labeled "end"<br />
<br />
If mistakes are made, they are quickly brought to the individuals attention and they continue from the last correct circle<br />
<br />
Test takes 5-10 minutes to complete<br />
<br />
Evaluates information processing speed, visual scanning ability, integration of visual and motor functions, letter and number recognition and sequencing, and the ability to maintain two different trains of though<br />
<br />
A Color Trails Test is used for children and individuals of different cultures in which colors are used instead of numbers and letters<br />
<br />
Scoring is the time to complete each part<br />
<br />
Errors increase the total time<br />
<br />
For adults, scores above 40 seconds for Part A and 91 seconds for Part B indicate brain impairment<br />
<br />
However it is important to consider other variables such as age when scoring<br />
<br />
== Finger Tapping Test ==<br />
Subjects place their dominant hand palm down, fingers extended, with the index finger resting on a lever that is attached to a counting device<br />
<br />
They are then instructed to tap their index finger as quickly as possible for 10 seconds while keeping the hand and arm stationary<br />
<br />
The trial is repeated 5-10 times until the examiner collects counts for 5 consecutive trials that are within 5 taps of each other<br />
<br />
A practice session is given before the test<br />
<br />
A brief rest is given between each trial and a 1-2 minute rest is given every third trial<br />
<br />
The procedure is repeated with the non-dominant hand<br />
<br />
Takes approximately 10 minutes to complete the test<br />
<br />
The children’s version uses an electronic tapper instead of a manual one<br />
<br />
The test measures motor speed and helps to determine particular areas of the brain that may be damaged<br />
<br />
To score the examiner calculates an average number of taps per trial for each of the 5 accepted trials<br />
<br />
The dominant hand should be 10% better than the non-dominant hand, which doesn’t always occur in left-handed individuals<br />
<br />
Males and younger individuals perform better than females and older people<br />
<br />
Education level, intelligence, fatigue, depression, and injuries to the shoulders, arms, or hands should also be considered when scoring<br />
<br />
Must be interpreted in combination with other tests in the battery<br />
<br />
== Rhythm Test ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Speech Sounds Perception Test ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Reitan-Indiana Aphasia Screening Test ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Reitan-Klove Sensory-Perceptual Examination ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Ancillary Test ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Results ==<br />
<br />
== Works Cited==<br />
[http://www.nldontheweb.org/loring-meador.htm NLD on the Web]<br />
<br />
[http://www.healthline.com/galecontent/halstead-reitan-battery Health Line]<br />
<br />
[http://www.minddisorders.com/Flu-Inv/Halstead-Reitan-Battery.html Halstead-Reitan Battery]</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Halstead-Reitan_batteryHalstead-Reitan battery2008-04-24T16:39:01Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Neuropsychological methods]]<br />
<br />
<br />
== Definition ==<br />
Fixed set of eight tests used to evaluate brain and nervous system functioning in individuals aged 15 years and older<br />
<br />
Children's versions are the Halstead Neuropsychological Test Battery for Older Children (ages 9-14) and the Reitan Indiana Neuropsychological Test Battery (ages 5-8)<br />
<br />
== Purpose ==<br />
Evaluates a wide range of nervous system and brain functions including visual input, auditory input, tactual input, verbal communication, spatial perception, sequential perception, the ability to analyze information, form mental concepts, make judgements, motor output, attention, concentration, and memory<br />
<br />
Used to evaluate individuals with suspected brain damage<br />
<br />
Provides useful information regarding the cause of damage, which part of the brain was damaged, whether the damage occurred during childhood development , and if the damage is getting worse, staying the same, or getting better<br />
<br />
The information gathered about the severity of impairment and areas of personal strengths can be used to develop plans for patient rehabilitation and care<br />
<br />
== Precautions ==<br />
Requires administration by a professional examiner and interpretation by a trained psychologist<br />
<br />
Test results are affected by the examinee's age, education level, intellectual ability, gender, and ethnicity, all of which need to be taken into account when analyzing the results<br />
<br />
Fixed battery of tests, which means that unnecessary information may be gathered and some important information may be missed<br />
<br />
Requires 5-6 hours to complete, patience, stamina, and cost<br />
<br />
Criticized because it does not include specific tests of memory; instead, memory is evaluated within the context of other tests<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
The Halstead-Reitan battery was created by Ward Halstead and Ralph Reitan<br />
<br />
The creation of the test was based on studies of patients with neurologic impairments at the University of Chicago<br />
<br />
Halstead recognized the need for an evaluation of brain functioning that was more extensive than intelligence testing<br />
<br />
Initially Halstead chose a set of 10 tests, all of which, except 3, are included in the current Halstead-Reitan battery<br />
<br />
Ralph Reitan was one of Halstead's students who contributed to the battery by researching the tests' ability to identify neurological problems<br />
<br />
Reitan diagnosed 8,000 patients using only their test results, without meeting the patients or knowing anything about their background, which provided support for the effectiveness of the battery<br />
<br />
Reitan adapted the original battery by including additional tests<br />
<br />
The Halstead-Reitan has been researched more than any other neuropsychological test battery<br />
<br />
Research supports the ability of the battery to detect impairment accurately in a large range of neuropsychological functions<br />
<br />
8 core tests<br />
<br />
== Category Test ==<br />
<br />
Total of 208 pictures consisting of geometric figures are presented<br />
Individuals are asked to decide whether they are reminded of the number 1, 2, 3, or 4 for each picture and press a key corresponding to their choice<br />
<br />
If the individual chooses correctly a chime sounds and if they choose incorrectly a buzzer sounds<br />
<br />
The pictures are presented in 7 subtests<br />
<br />
The key to the category test is that one principle or common characteristic underlies each subtest<br />
<br />
The numbers 1-4 represent the possible principles<br />
<br />
If the subject recognizes the correct principle in one picture they will respond correctly for the remaining pictures in that subtest<br />
<br />
The next subtest may have the same or different underlying principle and the subject must once again try to determine the principle using the feedback of the chime and buzzer<br />
<br />
The last subtest contains two underlying principles <br />
<br />
Test takes 1 hour, but individuals with severe brain damage may take up to 2 hours<br />
<br />
Considered to be the battery's most effect test for detecting brain damage<br />
<br />
Does not help determine where the problem is occurring in the brain<br />
<br />
Evaluates the ability to draw specific conclusions from general information<br />
<br />
Also aids in detecting one's ability to solve complex and unique problems and one's ability to learn from experience<br />
<br />
The children's versions consist of 80 items and 5 subtests for young children and 168 and 6 subtests for older children<br />
<br />
Scoring involves recording the number of errors<br />
<br />
Scores above 41 are considered indicative of brain impairment for ages 15-45<br />
<br />
Scores above 46 indicate impairment for ages 46 and older<br />
Recommended cutoffs vary depending on age and education level<br />
<br />
== Tactual Performance Test ==<br />
Board containing 10 cut-out shapes and ten wooden blocks matching those shapes are placed in front of a blindfolded individual <br />
<br />
Instructed to use only their dominant hand to place the blocks in their appropriate space on the board<br />
<br />
Same procedure repeated using the non-dominant hand only<br />
<br />
Same procedure repeated using both hands<br />
<br />
Board, blocks, and then blindfold are removed<br />
<br />
The individual is then asked to draw the board and the shapes in their proper locations from memory only<br />
<br />
Takes 15-50 minutes to complete<br />
<br />
Time limit of 15 minutes per trial<br />
<br />
Evaluates sensory ability, memory for shapes and spatial location, motor functions, and the brain's ability to transfer information between its two hemispheres<br />
<br />
Detection of brain damage<br />
<br />
Helps to determine which side of the brain damage may have occurred<br />
<br />
For children under 15, only 6 shapes are used<br />
<br />
Scoring involves the time to complete each of the 3 blindfolded trials and the total time for all trials combined, the number of shapes recalled, and the number of shapes drawn in their correct locations<br />
<br />
Trial for the non-dominant hand should be 20 to 30 percent faster than the trial for the dominant hand because of practice effects<br />
<br />
If the non-dominant hand is slower or more than 30 percent faster, brain damage is possible<br />
<br />
Injuries of the arms, shoulders, or hands can also affect performance<br />
<br />
Scores are adjusted depending on education level and age<br />
<br />
== Trail Making Test ==<br />
Consists of 2 parts<br />
<br />
Part A: 25 numbered circles randomly arranged and individuals are instructed to draw lines between the circles in increasing sequential order until they reach the circle labeled "end"<br />
<br />
Part B: A page with circles containing the letters A through L and 13 numbered circles intermixed and randomly arranged and individuals are instructed to connect the circles by drawing lines alternating between numbers and letters in sequential order, until they reach the circle labeled "end"<br />
<br />
If mistakes are made, they are quickly brought to the individuals attention and they continue from the last correct circle<br />
<br />
Test takes 5-10 minutes to complete<br />
<br />
Evaluates information processing speed, visual scanning ability, integration of visual and motor functions, letter and number recognition and sequencing, and the ability to maintain two different trains of though<br />
<br />
A Color Trails Test is used for children and individuals of different cultures in which colors are used instead of numbers and letters<br />
<br />
Scoring is the time to complete each part<br />
<br />
Errors increase the total time<br />
<br />
For adults, scores above 40 seconds for Part A and 91 seconds for Part B indicate brain impairment<br />
<br />
However it is important to consider other variables such as age when scoring<br />
<br />
== Finger Tapping Test ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Rhythm Test ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Speech Sounds Perception Test ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Reitan-Indiana Aphasia Screening Test ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Reitan-Klove Sensory-Perceptual Examination ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Ancillary Test ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Results ==<br />
<br />
== Works Cited==<br />
[http://www.nldontheweb.org/loring-meador.htm NLD on the Web]<br />
<br />
[http://www.healthline.com/galecontent/halstead-reitan-battery Health Line]<br />
<br />
[http://www.minddisorders.com/Flu-Inv/Halstead-Reitan-Battery.html Halstead-Reitan Battery]</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Halstead-Reitan_batteryHalstead-Reitan battery2008-04-24T16:33:04Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Neuropsychological methods]]<br />
<br />
<br />
== Definition ==<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Fixed set of eight tests used to evaluate brain and nervous system functioning in individuals aged 15 years and older<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Children�¢ï¿½ï¿½s versions are the Halstead Neuropsychological Test Battery for Older Children (ages 9-14) and the Reitan Indiana Neuropsychological Test Battery (ages 5-8)<br />
<br />
== Purpose ==<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Evaluates a wide range of nervous system and brain functions including visual input, auditory input, tactual input, verbal communication, spatial perception, sequential perception, the ability to analyze information, form mental concepts, make judgements, motor output, attention, concentration, and memory<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Used to evaluate individuals with suspected brain damage<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Provides useful information regarding the cause of damage, which part of the brain was damaged, whether the damage occurred during childhood development , and if the damage is getting worse, staying the same, or getting better<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ The information gathered about the severity of impairment and areas of personal strengths can be used to develop plans for patient rehabilitation and care<br />
<br />
== Precautions ==<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Requires administration by a professional examiner and interpretation by a trained psychologist<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Test results are affected by the examinee�¢ï¿½ï¿½s age, education level, intellectual ability, gender, and ethnicity, all of which need to be taken into account when analyzing the results<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Fixed battery of tests, which means that unnecessary information may be gathered and some important information may be missed<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Requires 5-6 hours to complete, patience, stamina, and cost<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Criticized because it does not include specific tests of memory; instead, memory is evaluated within the context of other tests<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ The Halstead-Reitan battery was created by Ward Halstead and Ralph Reitan<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ The creation of the test was based on studies of patients with neurologic impairments at the University of Chicago<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Halstead recognized the need for an evaluation of brain functioning that was more extensive than intelligence testing<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Initially Halstead chose a set of 10 tests, all of which, except 3, are included in the current Halstead-Reitan battery<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Ralph Reitan was one of Halstead�¢ï¿½ï¿½s students who contributed to the battery by researching the tests�¢ï¿½ï¿½ ability to identify neurological problems<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Reitan diagnosed 8,000 patients using only their test results, without meeting the patients or knowing anything about their background, which provided support for the effectiveness of the battery<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Reitan adapted the original battery by including additional tests<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ The Halstead-Reitan has been researched more than any other neuropsychological test battery<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Research supports the ability of the battery to detect impairment accurately in a large range of neuropsychological functions<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ 8 core tests<br />
<br />
== Category Test ==<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Total of 208 pictures consisting of geometric figures are presented<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Individuals are asked to decide whether they are reminded of the number 1, 2, 3, or 4 for each picture and press a key corresponding to their choice<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ If the individual chooses correctly a chime sounds and if they choose incorrectly a buzzer sounds<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ The pictures are presented in 7 subtests<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ The key to the category test is that one principle or common characteristic underlies each subtest<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ The numbers 1-4 represent the possible principles<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ If the subject recognizes the correct principle in one picture they will respond correctly for the remaining pictures in that subtest<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ The next subtest may have the same or different underlying principle and the subject must once again try to determine the principle using the feedback of the chime and buzzer<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ The last subtest contains two underlying principles <br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Test takes 1 hour, but individuals with severe brain damage may take up to 2 hours<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Considered to be the battery�¢ï¿½ï¿½s most effect test for detecting brain damage<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Does not help determine where the problem is occurring in the brain<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Evaluates the ability to draw specific conclusions from general information<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Also aids in detecting one�¢ï¿½ï¿½s ability to solve complex and unique problems and one�¢ï¿½ï¿½s ability to learn from experience<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ The children�¢ï¿½ï¿½s versions consist of 80 items and 5 subtests for young children and 168 and 6 subtests for older children<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Scoring involves recording the number of errors<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Scores above 41 are considered indicative of brain impairment for ages 15-45<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Scores above 46 indicate impairment for ages 46 and older<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Recommended cutoffs vary depending on age and education level<br />
<br />
== Tactual Performance Test ==<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Board containing 10 cut-out shapes and ten wooden blocks matching those shapes are placed in front of a blindfolded individual <br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Instructed to use only their dominant hand to place the blocks in their appropriate space on the board<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Same procedure repeated using the non-dominant hand only<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Same procedure repeated using both hands<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Board, blocks, and then blindfold are removed<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ The individual is then asked to draw the board and the shapes in their proper locations from memory only<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Takes 15-50 minutes to complete<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Time limit of 15 minutes per trial<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Evaluates sensory ability, memory for shapes and spatial location, motor functions, and the brain�¢ï¿½ï¿½s ability to transfer information between its two hemispheres<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Detection of brain damage<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Helps to determine which side of the brain damage may have occurred<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ For children under 15, only 6 shapes are used<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Scoring involves the time to complete each of the 3 blindfolded trials and the total time for all trials combined, the number of shapes recalled, and the number of shapes drawn in their correct locations<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Trial for the non-dominant hand should be 20 to 30 percent faster than the trial for the dominant hand because of practice effects<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ If the non-dominant hand is slower or more than 30 percent faster, brain damage is possible<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Injuries of the arms, shoulders, or hands can also affect performance<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Scores are adjusted depending on education level and age<br />
<br />
== Trail Making Test ==<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Consists of 2 parts<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Part A: 25 numbered circles randomly arranged and individuals are instructed to draw lines between the circles in increasing sequential order until they reach the circle labeled �¢ï¿½ï¿½end�¢ï¿½ï¿½<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Part B: A page with circles containing the letters A through L and 13 numbered circles intermixed and randomly arranged and individuals are instructed to connect the circles by drawing lines alternating between numbers and letters in sequential order, until they reach the circle labeled �¢ï¿½ï¿½end�¢ï¿½ï¿½<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ If mistakes are made, they are quickly brought to the individuals attention and they continue from the last correct circle<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Test takes 5-10 minutes to complete<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Evaluates information processing speed, visual scanning ability, integration of visual and motor functions, letter and number recognition and sequencing, and the ability to maintain two different trains of though<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ A Color Trails Test is used for children and individuals of different cultures in which colors are used instead of numbers and letters<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Scoring is the time to complete each part<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ Errors increase the total time<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ For adults, scores above 40 seconds for Part A and 91 seconds for Part B indicate brain impairment<br />
<br />
�¢ï¿½�¢ However it is important to consider other variables such as age when scoring<br />
<br />
== Finger Tapping Test ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Rhythm Test ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Speech Sounds Perception Test ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Reitan-Indiana Aphasia Screening Test ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Reitan-Klove Sensory-Perceptual Examination ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Ancillary Test ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Results ==<br />
<br />
== Works Cited==<br />
[http://www.nldontheweb.org/loring-meador.htm NLD on the Web]<br />
<br />
[http://www.healthline.com/galecontent/halstead-reitan-battery Health Line]<br />
<br />
[http://www.minddisorders.com/Flu-Inv/Halstead-Reitan-Battery.html Halstead-Reitan Battery]</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Halstead-Reitan_batteryHalstead-Reitan battery2008-04-24T16:31:32Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Neuropsychological methods]]<br />
<br />
<br />
== Definition ==<br />
� Fixed set of eight tests used to evaluate brain and nervous system functioning in individuals aged 15 years and older<br />
<br />
� Children�s versions are the Halstead Neuropsychological Test Battery for Older Children (ages 9-14) and the Reitan Indiana Neuropsychological Test Battery (ages 5-8)<br />
<br />
== Purpose ==<br />
� Evaluates a wide range of nervous system and brain functions including visual input, auditory input, tactual input, verbal communication, spatial perception, sequential perception, the ability to analyze information, form mental concepts, make judgements, motor output, attention, concentration, and memory<br />
<br />
� Used to evaluate individuals with suspected brain damage<br />
<br />
� Provides useful information regarding the cause of damage, which part of the brain was damaged, whether the damage occurred during childhood development , and if the damage is getting worse, staying the same, or getting better<br />
<br />
� The information gathered about the severity of impairment and areas of personal strengths can be used to develop plans for patient rehabilitation and care<br />
<br />
== Precautions ==<br />
� Requires administration by a professional examiner and interpretation by a trained psychologist<br />
<br />
� Test results are affected by the examinee�s age, education level, intellectual ability, gender, and ethnicity, all of which need to be taken into account when analyzing the results<br />
<br />
� Fixed battery of tests, which means that unnecessary information may be gathered and some important information may be missed<br />
<br />
� Requires 5-6 hours to complete, patience, stamina, and cost<br />
<br />
� Criticized because it does not include specific tests of memory; instead, memory is evaluated within the context of other tests<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
� The Halstead-Reitan battery was created by Ward Halstead and Ralph Reitan<br />
<br />
� The creation of the test was based on studies of patients with neurologic impairments at the University of Chicago<br />
<br />
� Halstead recognized the need for an evaluation of brain functioning that was more extensive than intelligence testing<br />
<br />
� Initially Halstead chose a set of 10 tests, all of which, except 3, are included in the current Halstead-Reitan battery<br />
<br />
� Ralph Reitan was one of Halstead�s students who contributed to the battery by researching the tests� ability to identify neurological problems<br />
<br />
� Reitan diagnosed 8,000 patients using only their test results, without meeting the patients or knowing anything about their background, which provided support for the effectiveness of the battery<br />
<br />
� Reitan adapted the original battery by including additional tests<br />
<br />
� The Halstead-Reitan has been researched more than any other neuropsychological test battery<br />
<br />
� Research supports the ability of the battery to detect impairment accurately in a large range of neuropsychological functions<br />
<br />
� 8 core tests<br />
<br />
== Category Test ==<br />
<br />
� Total of 208 pictures consisting of geometric figures are presented<br />
<br />
� Individuals are asked to decide whether they are reminded of the number 1, 2, 3, or 4 for each picture and press a key corresponding to their choice<br />
<br />
� If the individual chooses correctly a chime sounds and if they choose incorrectly a buzzer sounds<br />
<br />
� The pictures are presented in 7 subtests<br />
<br />
� The key to the category test is that one principle or common characteristic underlies each subtest<br />
<br />
� The numbers 1-4 represent the possible principles<br />
<br />
� If the subject recognizes the correct principle in one picture they will respond correctly for the remaining pictures in that subtest<br />
<br />
� The next subtest may have the same or different underlying principle and the subject must once again try to determine the principle using the feedback of the chime and buzzer<br />
<br />
� The last subtest contains two underlying principles <br />
<br />
� Test takes 1 hour, but individuals with severe brain damage may take up to 2 hours<br />
<br />
� Considered to be the battery�s most effect test for detecting brain damage<br />
<br />
� Does not help determine where the problem is occurring in the brain<br />
<br />
� Evaluates the ability to draw specific conclusions from general information<br />
<br />
� Also aids in detecting one�s ability to solve complex and unique problems and one�s ability to learn from experience<br />
<br />
� The children�s versions consist of 80 items and 5 subtests for young children and 168 and 6 subtests for older children<br />
<br />
� Scoring involves recording the number of errors<br />
<br />
� Scores above 41 are considered indicative of brain impairment for ages 15-45<br />
<br />
� Scores above 46 indicate impairment for ages 46 and older<br />
<br />
� Recommended cutoffs vary depending on age and education level<br />
<br />
== Tactual Performance Test ==<br />
� Board containing 10 cut-out shapes and ten wooden blocks matching those shapes are placed in front of a blindfolded individual <br />
<br />
� Instructed to use only their dominant hand to place the blocks in their appropriate space on the board<br />
<br />
� Same procedure repeated using the non-dominant hand only<br />
<br />
� Same procedure repeated using both hands<br />
<br />
� Board, blocks, and then blindfold are removed<br />
<br />
� The individual is then asked to draw the board and the shapes in their proper locations from memory only<br />
<br />
� Takes 15-50 minutes to complete<br />
<br />
� Time limit of 15 minutes per trial<br />
<br />
� Evaluates sensory ability, memory for shapes and spatial location, motor functions, and the brain�s ability to transfer information between its two hemispheres<br />
<br />
� Detection of brain damage<br />
<br />
� Helps to determine which side of the brain damage may have occurred<br />
<br />
� For children under 15, only 6 shapes are used<br />
<br />
� Scoring involves the time to complete each of the 3 blindfolded trials and the total time for all trials combined, the number of shapes recalled, and the number of shapes drawn in their correct locations<br />
<br />
� Trial for the non-dominant hand should be 20 to 30 percent faster than the trial for the dominant hand because of practice effects<br />
<br />
� If the non-dominant hand is slower or more than 30 percent faster, brain damage is possible<br />
<br />
� Injuries of the arms, shoulders, or hands can also affect performance<br />
<br />
� Scores are adjusted depending on education level and age<br />
<br />
== Trail Making Test ==<br />
� Consists of 2 parts<br />
<br />
� Part A: 25 numbered circles randomly arranged and individuals are instructed to draw lines between the circles in increasing sequential order until they reach the circle labeled �end�<br />
<br />
� Part B: A page with circles containing the letters A through L and 13 numbered circles intermixed and randomly arranged and individuals are instructed to connect the circles by drawing lines alternating between numbers and letters in sequential order, until they reach the circle labeled �end�<br />
<br />
� If mistakes are made, they are quickly brought to the individuals attention and they continue from the last correct circle<br />
<br />
� Test takes 5-10 minutes to complete<br />
<br />
� Evaluates information processing speed, visual scanning ability, integration of visual and motor functions, letter and number recognition and sequencing, and the ability to maintain two different trains of though<br />
<br />
� A Color Trails Test is used for children and individuals of different cultures in which colors are used instead of numbers and letters<br />
<br />
� Scoring is the time to complete each part<br />
<br />
� Errors increase the total time<br />
<br />
� For adults, scores above 40 seconds for Part A and 91 seconds for Part B indicate brain impairment<br />
<br />
� However it is important to consider other variables such as age when scoring<br />
<br />
== Finger Tapping Test ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Rhythm Test ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Speech Sounds Perception Test ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Reitan-Indiana Aphasia Screening Test ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Reitan-Klove Sensory-Perceptual Examination ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Ancillary Test ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Results ==<br />
<br />
== Works Cited==<br />
[http://www.nldontheweb.org/loring-meador.htm NLD on the Web]<br />
<br />
[http://www.healthline.com/galecontent/halstead-reitan-battery Health Line]</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Halstead-Reitan_batteryHalstead-Reitan battery2008-04-24T16:30:47Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Neuropsychological methods]]<br />
<br />
<br />
== Definition ==<br />
� Fixed set of eight tests used to evaluate brain and nervous system functioning in individuals aged 15 years and older<br />
<br />
� Children�s versions are the Halstead Neuropsychological Test Battery for Older Children (ages 9-14) and the Reitan Indiana Neuropsychological Test Battery (ages 5-8)<br />
<br />
== Purpose ==<br />
� Evaluates a wide range of nervous system and brain functions including visual input, auditory input, tactual input, verbal communication, spatial perception, sequential perception, the ability to analyze information, form mental concepts, make judgements, motor output, attention, concentration, and memory<br />
<br />
� Used to evaluate individuals with suspected brain damage<br />
<br />
� Provides useful information regarding the cause of damage, which part of the brain was damaged, whether the damage occurred during childhood development , and if the damage is getting worse, staying the same, or getting better<br />
<br />
� The information gathered about the severity of impairment and areas of personal strengths can be used to develop plans for patient rehabilitation and care<br />
<br />
== Precautions ==<br />
� Requires administration by a professional examiner and interpretation by a trained psychologist<br />
<br />
� Test results are affected by the examinee�s age, education level, intellectual ability, gender, and ethnicity, all of which need to be taken into account when analyzing the results<br />
<br />
� Fixed battery of tests, which means that unnecessary information may be gathered and some important information may be missed<br />
<br />
� Requires 5-6 hours to complete, patience, stamina, and cost<br />
<br />
� Criticized because it does not include specific tests of memory; instead, memory is evaluated within the context of other tests<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
� The Halstead-Reitan battery was created by Ward Halstead and Ralph Reitan<br />
<br />
� The creation of the test was based on studies of patients with neurologic impairments at the University of Chicago<br />
<br />
� Halstead recognized the need for an evaluation of brain functioning that was more extensive than intelligence testing<br />
<br />
� Initially Halstead chose a set of 10 tests, all of which, except 3, are included in the current Halstead-Reitan battery<br />
<br />
� Ralph Reitan was one of Halstead�s students who contributed to the battery by researching the tests� ability to identify neurological problems<br />
<br />
� Reitan diagnosed 8,000 patients using only their test results, without meeting the patients or knowing anything about their background, which provided support for the effectiveness of the battery<br />
<br />
� Reitan adapted the original battery by including additional tests<br />
<br />
� The Halstead-Reitan has been researched more than any other neuropsychological test battery<br />
<br />
� Research supports the ability of the battery to detect impairment accurately in a large range of neuropsychological functions<br />
<br />
� 8 core tests<br />
<br />
== Category Test ==<br />
<br />
� Total of 208 pictures consisting of geometric figures are presented<br />
<br />
� Individuals are asked to decide whether they are reminded of the number 1, 2, 3, or 4 for each picture and press a key corresponding to their choice<br />
<br />
� If the individual chooses correctly a chime sounds and if they choose incorrectly a buzzer sounds<br />
<br />
� The pictures are presented in 7 subtests<br />
<br />
� The key to the category test is that one principle or common characteristic underlies each subtest<br />
<br />
� The numbers 1-4 represent the possible principles<br />
<br />
� If the subject recognizes the correct principle in one picture they will respond correctly for the remaining pictures in that subtest<br />
<br />
� The next subtest may have the same or different underlying principle and the subject must once again try to determine the principle using the feedback of the chime and buzzer<br />
<br />
� The last subtest contains two underlying principles <br />
<br />
� Test takes 1 hour, but individuals with severe brain damage may take up to 2 hours<br />
<br />
� Considered to be the battery�s most effect test for detecting brain damage<br />
<br />
� Does not help determine where the problem is occurring in the brain<br />
<br />
� Evaluates the ability to draw specific conclusions from general information<br />
<br />
� Also aids in detecting one�s ability to solve complex and unique problems and one�s ability to learn from experience<br />
<br />
� The children�s versions consist of 80 items and 5 subtests for young children and 168 and 6 subtests for older children<br />
<br />
� Scoring involves recording the number of errors<br />
<br />
� Scores above 41 are considered indicative of brain impairment for ages 15-45<br />
<br />
� Scores above 46 indicate impairment for ages 46 and older<br />
<br />
� Recommended cutoffs vary depending on age and education level<br />
<br />
== Tactual Performance Test ==<br />
� Board containing 10 cut-out shapes and ten wooden blocks matching those shapes are placed in front of a blindfolded individual <br />
<br />
� Instructed to use only their dominant hand to place the blocks in their appropriate space on the board<br />
<br />
� Same procedure repeated using the non-dominant hand only<br />
<br />
� Same procedure repeated using both hands<br />
<br />
� Board, blocks, and then blindfold are removed<br />
<br />
� The individual is then asked to draw the board and the shapes in their proper locations from memory only<br />
<br />
� Takes 15-50 minutes to complete<br />
<br />
� Time limit of 15 minutes per trial<br />
<br />
� Evaluates sensory ability, memory for shapes and spatial location, motor functions, and the brain�s ability to transfer information between its two hemispheres<br />
<br />
� Detection of brain damage<br />
<br />
� Helps to determine which side of the brain damage may have occurred<br />
<br />
� For children under 15, only 6 shapes are used<br />
<br />
� Scoring involves the time to complete each of the 3 blindfolded trials and the total time for all trials combined, the number of shapes recalled, and the number of shapes drawn in their correct locations<br />
<br />
� Trial for the non-dominant hand should be 20 to 30 percent faster than the trial for the dominant hand because of practice effects<br />
<br />
� If the non-dominant hand is slower or more than 30 percent faster, brain damage is possible<br />
<br />
� Injuries of the arms, shoulders, or hands can also affect performance<br />
<br />
� Scores are adjusted depending on education level and age<br />
<br />
== Trail Making Test ==<br />
� Consists of 2 parts<br />
<br />
� Part A: 25 numbered circles randomly arranged and individuals are instructed to draw lines between the circles in increasing sequential order until they reach the circle labeled �end�<br />
<br />
� Part B: A page with circles containing the letters A through L and 13 numbered circles intermixed and randomly arranged and individuals are instructed to connect the circles by drawing lines alternating between numbers and letters in sequential order, until they reach the circle labeled �end�<br />
<br />
� If mistakes are made, they are quickly brought to the individuals attention and they continue from the last correct circle<br />
<br />
� Test takes 5-10 minutes to complete<br />
<br />
� Evaluates information processing speed, visual scanning ability, integration of visual and motor functions, letter and number recognition and sequencing, and the ability to maintain two different trains of though<br />
<br />
� A Color Trails Test is used for children and individuals of different cultures in which colors are used instead of numbers and letters<br />
<br />
� Scoring is the time to complete each part<br />
<br />
� Errors increase the total time<br />
<br />
� For adults, scores above 40 seconds for Part A and 91 seconds for Part B indicate brain impairment<br />
<br />
� However it is important to consider other variables such as age when scoring<br />
<br />
== Finger Tapping Test ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Rhythm Test ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Speech Sounds Perception Test ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Reitan-Indiana Aphasia Screening Test ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Reitan-Klove Sensory-Perceptual Examination ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Ancillary Test ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Results ==<br />
<br />
== Works Cited==<br />
[http://www.nldontheweb.org/loring-meador.htm NLD on the Web]</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/D.B._(blindsight_patient)D.B. (blindsight patient)2008-04-24T16:29:19Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Neuropsychological profiles]]<br />
<br />
== Blindsight==<br />
· A condition in which the sufferer responds to visual stimuli without consciously perceiving them<br />
<br />
· Historical origins stem from animal research<br />
<br />
· The primate retina sends its neural output to through the thalamus and to the visual cortex area labeled V1 or striate cortex<br />
<br />
· When the striate cortex is removed in animal studies, the animals still carry out visual discriminations; however their capacity changes<br />
<br />
· Subjects are able to still carry out visual discrimination because the output from the eye also reaches other brain targets in the midbrain and thalamus that remain intact when the V1 is removed<br />
<br />
· Human subjects that suffer a loss of V1 claim to be blind, even though they can carry out visual discrimination tasks<br />
<br />
· The secondary routes used when the primary visual cortex has been removed are not sufficient to maintain the feeling of sight, which could explain why blindsight patients have the subjective feeling that he or she is blind, but can report visual information when forced to guess <br />
<br />
== History==<br />
· Originally discovered when trying to compare the visual cortex between monkeys and humans<br />
<br />
· Recently, it has become clear that monkeys without primary visual cortex can discriminate shapes, demonstrate contrast sensitivity functions over a range of spatial frequencies, and have measurable acuity that is reduced from normal<br />
<br />
· It has also been shown that these monkeys have remarkable sensitivity to small and brief visual events and will fixate on them or reach for them<br />
<br />
· Monkeys with blindsight are also sensitive to the detection of movement<br />
<br />
· Human subjects are blind in comparison to monkeys when the primary visual cortex is removed<br />
<br />
· Early neurologists, Poppelreuter and Riddoch, studied World War I victims and claimed that there could be some residual function<br />
<br />
· Teuber and colleagues supported this claim when studying World War II victims<br />
<br />
· Progress in the comparison of monkeys to humans was made when researchers began studying humans in the same manner as monkeys by having them reach out to touch briefly presented stimuli<br />
<br />
· In 1973 Held and Frost completed this test on subjects with their visual cortex removed because they believed that midbrain pathways were implicated in the saccadic control, which survived when visual cortex was removed<br />
<br />
· Even though the subjects claimed that they could not see the stimuli in their field defects, there was a significant correlation between stimulus location and target eye position<br />
<br />
== D.B.==<br />
'''The First Studied Blindsight Patient'''<br />
· D.B.'s primary visual cortex was removed surgically from his right hemisphere to ablate a benign tumor that had invaded the area<br />
<br />
· The primary visual cortex relays visual information from the eyes to higher coritcal visual areas<br />
<br />
· As a result of the removal of his right primary visual cortex, D.B. became blind in his left visual field<br />
<br />
· He was tested in a way similar to animal testing by being told to guess at answers whether or not he can see them<br />
<br />
· Termed forced-choice testing<br />
<br />
· The result of this testing in D.B was that he could succeed ina variety of discriminations tasks by guessing in his blind field, even though he said he did not see in his blind field<br />
<br />
· He could tell the direction a grating was oriented and whether a stimulus was moving or stationary<br />
<br />
· His visual acuity was tested by varying the spacing of a grating and forcing D.B. to guess whether there were lines or no lines<br />
<br />
· D.B.'s ability to reach out and locate the position of a stimuli in his blind field was good, but not normal<br />
<br />
· This ability matched the ability of monkeys tested without primary visual cortex<br />
<br />
· D.B. had a high level of visual proficiency in making discriminations in the absence of being aware of a stimuli<br />
<br />
· Weiskrantz and Warrington completed the testing on D.B. beginning in the 1970s and the testing continues today <br />
<br />
· When the researchers informed D.B. of his test results indicating his impressive performance without awareness, he was astonished because he thought he could not see in his blind field<br />
<br />
· D.B. remained convinced that he was simply guessing and that his performance was based on chance<br />
<br />
· D.B. was studied by Weiskrantz and Warrington for over 10 years<br />
<br />
· In 1986 the two researchers published a book titled "Blindsight" regarding D.B.'s capacity to detect and discriminate orientation, movement, and form under a variety of conditions<br />
<br />
· D.B.;s basic phenomenon of "unconscious" visual capacity remains; however, his sensitivity has improved <br />
<br />
== Results of Blindsight Studies==<br />
· The first results obtained by Weiskrantz and Warrington were published in 1974<br />
<br />
· The term "blindsight" was created as a result of Weiskrantz having to respond urgently to produce a title for a seminar he was invited to present at regarding D.B.'s phenomenon<br />
<br />
· The first occurance of the term "blindsight" in print occurred in 1974 in a short article by Sanders, et. al. describing the phenomenon of visual function in a field defect<br />
<br />
· The term stuck and now appears in dictionaries and papers throughout the globe<br />
<br />
· It was also discovered that rapid events such as rapid movement or the sudden onset of an object produced a "feeling" that some event had occurred even though it was not seen, which became known as Blidsight Type 2<br />
<br />
· Blindsight Type 1 is the situation in which there is no reported experience<br />
<br />
· Recently it has become evident that this phenomenon is not rare<br />
<br />
== Works Cited ==<br />
[http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Blindsight Blindsight]<br />
<br />
[http://members.fortunecity.com/templarser/enm9.html Chapter 9: Real Brains and Model Brains]<br />
<br />
[http://mrw.interscience.wiley.com/ecs/articles/s00186/frame.html Blindsight]</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/D.B._(blindsight_patient)D.B. (blindsight patient)2008-04-24T16:27:54Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Neuropsychological profiles]]<br />
<br />
== Blindsight==<br />
· A condition in which the sufferer responds to visual stimuli without consciously perceiving them<br />
<br />
· Historical origins stem from animal research<br />
<br />
· The primate retina sends its neural output to through the thalamus and to the visual cortex area labeled V1 or striate cortex<br />
<br />
· When the striate cortex is removed in animal studies, the animals still carry out visual discriminations; however their capacity changes<br />
<br />
· Subjects are able to still carry out visual discrimination because the output from the eye also reaches other brain targets in the midbrain and thalamus that remain intact when the V1 is removed<br />
<br />
· Human subjects that suffer a loss of V1 claim to be blind, even though they can carry out visual discrimination tasks<br />
<br />
· The secondary routes used when the primary visual cortex has been removed are not sufficient to maintain the feeling of sight, which could explain why blindsight patients have the subjective feeling that he or she is blind, but can report visual information when forced to guess <br />
<br />
== History==<br />
· Originally discovered when trying to compare the visual cortex between monkeys and humans<br />
<br />
· Recently, it has become clear that monkeys without primary visual cortex can discriminate shapes, demonstrate contrast sensitivity functions over a range of spatial frequencies, and have measurable acuity that is reduced from normal<br />
<br />
· It has also been shown that these monkeys have remarkable sensitivity to small and brief visual events and will fixate on them or reach for them<br />
<br />
· Monkeys with blindsight are also sensitive to the detection of movement<br />
<br />
· Human subjects are blind in comparison to monkeys when the primary visual cortex is removed<br />
<br />
· Early neurologists, Poppelreuter and Riddoch, studied World War I victims and claimed that there could be some residual function<br />
<br />
· Teuber and colleagues supported this claim when studying World War II victims<br />
<br />
· Progress in the comparison of monkeys to humans was made when researchers began studying humans in the same manner as monkeys by having them reach out to touch briefly presented stimuli<br />
<br />
· In 1973 Held and Frost completed this test on subjects with their visual cortex removed because they believed that midbrain pathways were implicated in the saccadic control, which survived when visual cortex was removed<br />
<br />
· Even though the subjects claimed that they could not see the stimuli in their field defects, there was a significant correlation between stimulus location and target eye position<br />
<br />
== D.B.==<br />
'''The First Studied Blindsight Patient'''<br />
· D.B.'s primary visual cortex was removed surgically from his right hemisphere to ablate a benign tumor that had invaded the area<br />
<br />
· The primary visual cortex relays visual information from the eyes to higher coritcal visual areas<br />
<br />
· As a result of the removal of his right primary visual cortex, D.B. became blind in his left visual field<br />
<br />
· He was tested in a way similar to animal testing by being told to guess at answers whether or not he can see them<br />
<br />
· Termed forced-choice testing<br />
<br />
· The result of this testing in D.B was that he could succeed ina variety of discriminations tasks by guessing in his blind field, even though he said he did not see in his blind field<br />
<br />
· He could tell the direction a grating was oriented and whether a stimulus was moving or stationary<br />
<br />
· His visual acuity was tested by varying the spacing of a grating and forcing D.B. to guess whether there were lines or no lines<br />
<br />
· D.B.'s ability to reach out and locate the position of a stimuli in his blind field was good, but not normal<br />
<br />
· This ability matched the ability of monkeys tested without primary visual cortex<br />
<br />
· D.B. had a high level of visual proficiency in making discriminations in the absence of being aware of a stimuli<br />
<br />
· Weiskrantz and Warrington completed the testing on D.B. beginning in the 1970s and the testing continues today <br />
<br />
· When the researchers informed D.B. of his test results indicating his impressive performance without awareness, he was astonished because he thought he could not see in his blind field<br />
<br />
· D.B. remained convinced that he was simply guessing and that his performance was based on chance<br />
<br />
· D.B. was studied by Weiskrantz and Warrington for over 10 years<br />
<br />
· In 1986 the two researchers published a book titled "Blindsight" regarding D.B.'s capacity to detect and discriminate orientation, movement, and form under a variety of conditions<br />
<br />
· D.B.;s basic phenomenon of "unconscious" visual capacity remains; however, his sensitivity has improved <br />
<br />
== Results of Blindsight Studies==<br />
· The first results obtained by Weiskrantz and Warrington were published in 1974<br />
<br />
· The term "blindsight" was created as a result of Weiskrantz having to respond urgently to produce a title for a seminar he was invited to present at regarding D.B.'s phenomenon<br />
<br />
· The first occurance of the term "blindsight" in print occurred in 1974 in a short article by Sanders, et. al. describing the phenomenon of visual function in a field defect<br />
<br />
· The term stuck and now appears in dictionaries and papers throughout the globe<br />
<br />
· It was also discovered that rapid events such as rapid movement or the sudden onset of an object produced a "feeling" that some event had occurred even though it was not seen, which became known as Blidsight Type 2<br />
<br />
· Blindsight Type 1 is the situation in which there is no reported experience<br />
<br />
· Recently it has become evident that this phenomenon is not rare<br />
<br />
== Works Cited ==<br />
[http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Blindsight Blindsight]<br />
<br />
[http://members.fortunecity.com/templarser/enm9.html Chapter 9: Real Brains and Model Brains]<br />
<br />
[http://mrw.interscience.wiley.com/ecs/articles/s00186/frame.html Blindsight]</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/D.B._(blindsight_patient)D.B. (blindsight patient)2008-04-24T16:24:10Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Neuropsychological profiles]]<br />
<br />
== Blindsight==<br />
�· A condition in which the sufferer responds to visual stimuli without consciously perceiving them<br />
<br />
�· Historical origins stem from animal research<br />
<br />
�· The primate retina sends its neural output to through the thalamus and to the visual cortex area labeled V1 or striate cortex<br />
<br />
�· When the striate cortex is removed in animal studies, the animals still carry out visual discriminations; however their capacity changes<br />
<br />
�· Subjects are able to still carry out visual discrimination because the output from the eye also reaches other brain targets in the midbrain and thalamus that remain intact when the V1 is removed<br />
<br />
�· Human subjects that suffer a loss of V1 claim to be blind, even though they can carry out visual discrimination tasks<br />
<br />
�· The secondary routes used when the primary visual cortex has been removed are not sufficient to maintain the feeling of sight, which could explain why blindsight patients have the subjective feeling that he or she is blind, but can report visual information when forced to guess <br />
<br />
== History==<br />
�· Originally discovered when trying to compare the visual cortex between monkeys and humans<br />
<br />
�· Recently, it has become clear that monkeys without primary visual cortex can discriminate shapes, demonstrate contrast sensitivity functions over a range of spatial frequencies, and have measurable acuity that is reduced from normal<br />
<br />
�· It has also been shown that these monkeys have remarkable sensitivity to small and brief visual events and will fixate on them or reach for them<br />
<br />
�· Monkeys with blindsight are also sensitive to the detection of movement<br />
<br />
�· Human subjects are blind in comparison to monkeys when the primary visual cortex is removed<br />
<br />
�· Early neurologists, Poppelreuter and Riddoch, studied World War I victims and claimed that there could be some residual function<br />
<br />
�· Teuber and colleagues supported this claim when studying World War II victims<br />
<br />
�· Progress in the comparison of monkeys to humans was made when researchers began studying humans in the same manner as monkeys by having them reach out to touch briefly presented stimuli<br />
<br />
�· In 1973 Held and Frost completed this test on subjects with their visual cortex removed because they believed that midbrain pathways were implicated in the saccadic control, which survived when visual cortex was removed<br />
<br />
�· Even though the subjects claimed that they could not see the stimuli in their field defects, there was a significant correlation between stimulus location and target eye position<br />
<br />
== D.B.==<br />
'''The First Studied Blindsight Patient'''<br />
�· D.B.â��s primary visual cortex was removed surgically from his right hemisphere to ablate a benign tumor that had invaded the area<br />
<br />
�· The primary visual cortex relays visual information from the eyes to higher coritcal visual areas<br />
<br />
�· As a result of the removal of his right primary visual cortex, D.B. became blind in his left visual field<br />
<br />
�· He was tested in a way similar to animal testing by being told to guess at answers whether or not he can see them<br />
<br />
�· Termed forced-choice testing<br />
<br />
�· The result of this testing in D.B was that he could succeed ina variety of discriminations tasks by guessing in his blind field, even though he said he did not see in his blind field<br />
<br />
�· He could tell the direction a grating was oriented and whether a stimulus was moving or stationary<br />
<br />
�· His visual acuity was tested by varying the spacing of a grating and forcing D.B. to guess whether there were lines or no lines<br />
<br />
�· D.B.â��s ability to reach out and locate the position of a stimuli in his blind field was good, but not normal<br />
<br />
�· This ability matched the ability of monkeys tested without primary visual cortex<br />
<br />
�· D.B. had a high level of visual proficiency in making discriminations in the absence of being aware of a stimuli<br />
<br />
�· Weiskrantz and Warrington completed the testing on D.B. begning in the 1970s and the testing continues today <br />
<br />
�· When the researchers informed D.B. of his test results indicating his impressive performance without awareness, he was astonished because he thought he could not see in his blind field<br />
<br />
�· D.B. remained convinced that he was simply guessing and that his performance was based on chance<br />
<br />
�· D.B. was studied by Weiskrantz and Warrington for over 10 years<br />
<br />
�· In 1986 the two researchers published a book titled â��Blindsightâ�� regarding D.B.â��s capacity to detect and discriminate orientation, movement, and form under a variety of conditions<br />
<br />
�· D.B.â��s basic phenomenon of â��unconsciousâ�� visual capacity remains; however, his sensitivity has improved <br />
<br />
== Results of Blindsight Studies==<br />
�· The first results obtained by Weiskrantz and Warrington were published in 1974<br />
<br />
�· The term â��blindsightâ�� was created as a result of Weiskrantz having to respond urgently to produce a title for a seminar he was invited to present at regarding D.B.â��s phenomenon<br />
<br />
�· The first occurance of the term â��blindsightâ�� in print occurred in 1974 in a short article by Sanders, et. al. describing the phenomenon of visual function in a field defect<br />
<br />
�· The term stuck and now appears in dictionaries and papers throughout the globe<br />
<br />
�· It was also discovered that rapid events such as rapid movement or the sudden onset of an object produced a â��feelingâ�� that some event had occurred even though it was not seen, which became known as Blidsight Type 2<br />
<br />
�· Blindsight Type 1 is the situation in which there is no reported experience<br />
<br />
�· Recently it has become evident that this phenomenon is not rare<br />
<br />
== Works Cited ==<br />
[http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Blindsight Blindsight]<br />
<br />
[http://members.fortunecity.com/templarser/enm9.html Chapter 9: Real Brains and Model Brains]</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/D.B._(blindsight_patient)D.B. (blindsight patient)2008-04-24T16:22:10Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Neuropsychological profiles]]<br />
<br />
== Blindsight==<br />
· A condition in which the sufferer responds to visual stimuli without consciously perceiving them<br />
<br />
· Historical origins stem from animal research<br />
<br />
· The primate retina sends its neural output to through the thalamus and to the visual cortex area labeled V1 or striate cortex<br />
<br />
· When the striate cortex is removed in animal studies, the animals still carry out visual discriminations; however their capacity changes<br />
<br />
· Subjects are able to still carry out visual discrimination because the output from the eye also reaches other brain targets in the midbrain and thalamus that remain intact when the V1 is removed<br />
<br />
· Human subjects that suffer a loss of V1 claim to be blind, even though they can carry out visual discrimination tasks<br />
<br />
· The secondary routes used when the primary visual cortex has been removed are not sufficient to maintain the feeling of sight, which could explain why blindsight patients have the subjective feeling that he or she is blind, but can report visual information when forced to guess <br />
<br />
== History==<br />
· Originally discovered when trying to compare the visual cortex between monkeys and humans<br />
<br />
· Recently, it has become clear that monkeys without primary visual cortex can discriminate shapes, demonstrate contrast sensitivity functions over a range of spatial frequencies, and have measurable acuity that is reduced from normal<br />
<br />
· It has also been shown that these monkeys have remarkable sensitivity to small and brief visual events and will fixate on them or reach for them<br />
<br />
· Monkeys with blindsight are also sensitive to the detection of movement<br />
<br />
· Human subjects are blind in comparison to monkeys when the primary visual cortex is removed<br />
<br />
· Early neurologists, Poppelreuter and Riddoch, studied World War I victims and claimed that there could be some residual function<br />
<br />
· Teuber and colleagues supported this claim when studying World War II victims<br />
<br />
· Progress in the comparison of monkeys to humans was made when researchers began studying humans in the same manner as monkeys by having them reach out to touch briefly presented stimuli<br />
<br />
· In 1973 Held and Frost completed this test on subjects with their visual cortex removed because they believed that midbrain pathways were implicated in the saccadic control, which survived when visual cortex was removed<br />
<br />
· Even though the subjects claimed that they could not see the stimuli in their field defects, there was a significant correlation between stimulus location and target eye position<br />
<br />
== D.B.==<br />
'''The First Studied Blindsight Patient'''<br />
· D.B.�s primary visual cortex was removed surgically from his right hemisphere to ablate a benign tumor that had invaded the area<br />
<br />
· The primary visual cortex relays visual information from the eyes to higher coritcal visual areas<br />
<br />
· As a result of the removal of his right primary visual cortex, D.B. became blind in his left visual field<br />
<br />
· He was tested in a way similar to animal testing by being told to guess at answers whether or not he can see them<br />
<br />
· Termed forced-choice testing<br />
<br />
· The result of this testing in D.B was that he could succeed ina variety of discriminations tasks by guessing in his blind field, even though he said he did not see in his blind field<br />
<br />
· He could tell the direction a grating was oriented and whether a stimulus was moving or stationary<br />
<br />
· His visual acuity was tested by varying the spacing of a grating and forcing D.B. to guess whether there were lines or no lines<br />
<br />
· D.B.�s ability to reach out and locate the position of a stimuli in his blind field was good, but not normal<br />
<br />
· This ability matched the ability of monkeys tested without primary visual cortex<br />
<br />
· D.B. had a high level of visual proficiency in making discriminations in the absence of being aware of a stimuli<br />
<br />
· Weiskrantz and Warrington completed the testing on D.B. begning in the 1970s and the testing continues today <br />
<br />
· When the researchers informed D.B. of his test results indicating his impressive performance without awareness, he was astonished because he thought he could not see in his blind field<br />
<br />
· D.B. remained convinced that he was simply guessing and that his performance was based on chance<br />
<br />
· D.B. was studied by Weiskrantz and Warrington for over 10 years<br />
<br />
· In 1986 the two researchers published a book titled �Blindsight� regarding D.B.�s capacity to detect and discriminate orientation, movement, and form under a variety of conditions<br />
<br />
· D.B.�s basic phenomenon of �unconscious� visual capacity remains; however, his sensitivity has improved <br />
<br />
== Results of Blindsight Studies==<br />
· The first results obtained by Weiskrantz and Warrington were published in 1974<br />
<br />
· The term �blindsight� was created as a result of Weiskrantz having to respond urgently to produce a title for a seminar he was invited to present at regarding D.B.�s phenomenon<br />
<br />
· The first occurance of the term �blindsight� in print occurred in 1974 in a short article by Sanders, et. al. describing the phenomenon of visual function in a field defect<br />
<br />
· The term stuck and now appears in dictionaries and papers throughout the globe<br />
<br />
· It was also discovered that rapid events such as rapid movement or the sudden onset of an object produced a �feeling� that some event had occurred even though it was not seen, which became known as Blidsight Type 2<br />
<br />
· Blindsight Type 1 is the situation in which there is no reported experience<br />
<br />
· Recently it has become evident that this phenomenon is not rare<br />
<br />
== Works Cited ==<br />
[http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Blindsight Blindsight]</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Korsakoff%27s_syndromeKorsakoff's syndrome2008-04-24T16:19:43Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]<br />
[http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter8/images8/8-2l.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter8/chapter8Nutritional.html&h=399&w=400&sz=148&hl=en&start=10&um=1&tbnid=OhJrGWAQUh9iBM:&tbnh=124&tbnw=124&prev=/images%3Fq%3DKorsakoff%2527s%2Bsyndrome%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DN Pictures of a Patient's Brian with Korsakoff's Syndrome]<br />
<br />
== Definition ==<br />
Korsakoff's syndrome is a memory disorder caused by a deficiency of vitamin B1, also called thiamine<br />
<br />
Named after Sergei Korsakoff, the neuropsychiatris who popularized the theory<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
First mentioned in 19822 by James Jackson, a physician at Massachusetts General Hospital and professor at Boston Medical School, in a review of the peripheral neuritis of alcoholism<br />
<br />
1868 Sir Samuel Wilks, a physician at Guy's Hopital, London, gave an account of the characteristic mental symptoms in an article on alcoholic paraplegia<br />
<br />
In his doctoral thesis, Korsakoff called the condition "cerebropathia psychica toxaemica"<br />
<br />
The term Korsakoff's psychosis was introduced by Friedrich Jolly<br />
<br />
Korsakoff emphasized the association of alcoholic polyneuropathy with a specific pattern of mental disturbances by stating: "This mental disorder appears at times in the form of sharply delineated irritable weakness of the mental sphere, at times in the form of confusion with characteristic mistakes in orientation for place, time, and situation, and at times as an almost pure form of acute amnesia, where the recent memory is most severely involved, while the remote memory is well preserved¦ Some have suffered so widespread memory loss that they literally forget everything immediately."<br />
<br />
Korsakoff's psychosis was used originally to describe the combination of alcoholic polyneuropathy and characteristic mental disturbance and Korsakoff's syndrome was the non-alcoholic form with or without polyneuritis, which resulted from acquired conditions such as head injury, brain tumors, and encephalitis<br />
<br />
Blass and Gibson in 1977 identified a genetically determined disturbance of transketolase, which is a thiamine pyrophosphate-binding factor in fibroblasts<br />
<br />
Individuals who are homozygous for this defect are at an increased risk for developing thiamine deficiency in circumstances of dietary inadequacy<br />
<br />
== Causes and Symptoms ==<br />
The high calorie nature of alcohol is one of the main reasons that alcoholism leads to thiamine deficiency<br />
<br />
A large intake of alcohol substitutes alcohol for other calorie sources that contain more nutrition<br />
<br />
Food intake drops and multiple vitamin deficiencies develop as alcoholism grows<br />
<br />
It is believed that alcohol increases the body's requirement for B vitamins, while also interfering with the absorption of vitamin B1 from the intestine and impairing the body's ability to store and use B1<br />
<br />
Thiamine provides energy to the neurons of the brain in a variety of reactions<br />
<br />
As thiamine becomes unavailable, these reactions cannot be carried<br />
<br />
Because the end products of these reactions cannot be formed, substrates begin to accumulate and cause damage to the neurons<br />
<br />
The mamillary bodies and the thalamus of the diencephalon is responsible for the symptoms of this syndrome<br />
<br />
Those with Korsakoff's syndrome have difficulty with their memory<br />
<br />
Anterograde amnesia- the ability to learn new information is greatly affected, while intelligence and memory of past events is relatively unaffected<br />
<br />
Confabulation- a person with Korsakoff's syndrome fills in the gaps of their memory with fabricated or imagined information<br />
<br />
Complete unawareness of the memory defect and complete lack of worry or concern when it is pointed out<br />
<br />
Involves neuronal loss (damage to neurons), gliosis (result of damage to supporting cells of the central nervous system), and hemorrhage (bleeding in mammillary bodies)<br />
<br />
Other symptoms may include delirium, anxiety, fear, depression, confusion, delusions and insomnia; painful extremities, sometimes bilateral wrist drop, more frequent bilateral foot drop with pain or pressure over the long nerves<br />
<br />
== Diagnosis ==<br />
An individual diagnosed with alcoholism and a sudden onset of memory difficulties should be tested for Korsakoff's syndrome<br />
<br />
No specific test to diagnose this syndrome<br />
<br />
A careful examination of a patient's mental state could reveal the syndrome<br />
<br />
Check the patient's retention of factual information and the ability to learn new information<br />
<br />
A patient just recovering from Wenicke's syndrome who begins to display memory difficulties is likely to have developed Korsakoff's syndrome<br />
<br />
== Treatment ==<br />
Immediate administration of thiamine<br />
<br />
Any individual, regardless of the diagnosis of Korsakoff's syndrome, should receive thiamine<br />
<br />
== Prognosis ==<br />
15-20% of all patients hospitalized for Wenicke's syndrome will die of Korsakoff's syndrome<br />
<br />
Half of those who survive the syndrome will have permanent ataxia (difficulty walking)<br />
<br />
The paralysis of the eye muscles almost always have complete recovery with thiamine treatment<br />
<br />
Improvement in symptoms can take months of thiamine replacement<br />
<br />
Memory-impaired for the rest of their lives<br />
<br />
Usually requires a supervised living situation<br />
<br />
== Prevention ==<br />
Maintaining a diet with sufficient intake of thiamine<br />
<br />
Supplement an inadequate diet with vitamin preparations<br />
<br />
Treat the underlying alcohol addiction<br />
<br />
== Works Cited==<br />
[http://www.healthatoz.com/healthatoz/Atoz/common/standard/transform.jsp?requestURI=/healthatoz/Atoz/ency/korsakoffs_syndrome.jsp Health A to Z]<br />
<br />
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korsakoff's_syndrome Korsakoff's Syndrome]<br />
<br />
[http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/wernicke_korsakoff/wernicke-korsakoff.htm Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome Information Page]</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Korsakoff%27s_syndromeKorsakoff's syndrome2008-04-24T16:17:44Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]<br />
[http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter8/images8/8-2l.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter8/chapter8Nutritional.html&h=399&w=400&sz=148&hl=en&start=10&um=1&tbnid=OhJrGWAQUh9iBM:&tbnh=124&tbnw=124&prev=/images%3Fq%3DKorsakoff%2527s%2Bsyndrome%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DN Pictures of a Patient's Brian with Korsakoff's Syndrome]<br />
<br />
== Definition ==<br />
Korsakoff�s syndrome is a memory disorder caused by a deficiency of vitamin B1, also called thiamine<br />
<br />
Named after Sergei Korsakoff, the neuropsychiatris who popularized the theory<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
First mentioned in 19822 by James Jackson, a physician at Massachusetts General Hospital and professor at Boston Medical School, in a review of the peripheral neuritis of alcoholism<br />
<br />
1868 Sir Samuel Wilks, a physician at Guy�s Hopital, London, gave an account of the characteristic mental symptoms in an article on alcoholic paraplegia<br />
<br />
In his doctoral thesis, Korsakoff called the condition �cerebropathia psychica toxaemica�<br />
<br />
The term Korsakoff�s psychosis was introduced by Friedrich Jolly<br />
<br />
Korsakoff emphasized the association of alcoholic polyneuropathy with a specific pattern of mental disturbances by stating: �This mental disorder appears at times in the form of sharply delineated irritable weakness of the mental sphere, at times in the form of confusion with characteristic mistakes in orientation for place, time, and situation, and at times as an almost pure form of acute amnesia, where the recent memory is most severely involved, while the remote memory is well preserved� Some have suffered so widespread memory loss that they literally forget everything immediately.�<br />
<br />
Korsakoff�s psychosis was used originally to describe the combination of alcoholic polyneuropathy and characteristic mental disturbance and Korsakoff�s syndrome was the non-alcoholic form with or without polyneuritis, which resulted from acquired conditions such as head injury, brain tumors, and encephalitis<br />
<br />
Blass and Gibson in 1977 identified a genetically determined disturbance of transketolase, which is a thiamine pyrophosphate-binding factor in fibroblasts<br />
<br />
Individuals who are homozygous for this defect are at an increased risk for developing thiamine deficiency in circumstances of dietary inadequacy<br />
<br />
== Causes and Symptoms ==<br />
The high calorie nature of alcohol is one of the main reasons that alcoholism leads to thiamine deficiency<br />
<br />
A large intake of alcohol substitutes alcohol for other calorie sources that contain more nutrition<br />
<br />
Food intake drops and multiple vitamin deficiencies develop as alcoholism grows<br />
<br />
It is believed that alcohol increases the body�s requirement for B vitamins, while also interfering with the absorption of vitamin B1 from the intestine and impairing the body�s ability to store and use B1<br />
<br />
Thiamine provides energy to the neurons of the brain in a variety of reactions<br />
<br />
As thiamine becomes unavailable, these reactions cannot be carried<br />
<br />
Because the end products of these reactions cannot be formed, substrates begin to accumulate and cause damage to the neurons<br />
<br />
The mamillary bodies and the thalamus of the diencephalon is responsible for the symptoms of this syndrome<br />
<br />
Those with Korsakoff�s syndrome have difficulty with their memory<br />
<br />
Anterograde amnesia- the ability to learn new information is greatly affected, while intelligence and memory of past events is relatively unaffected<br />
<br />
Confabulation- a person with Korsakoff�s syndrome fills in the gaps of their memory with fabricated or imagined information<br />
<br />
Complete unawareness of the memory defect and complete lack of worry or concern when it is pointed out<br />
<br />
Involves neuronal loss (damage to neurons), gliosis (result of damage to supporting cells of the central nervous system), and hemorrhage (bleeding in mammillary bodies)<br />
<br />
Other symptoms may include delirium, anxiety, fear, depression, confusion, delusions and insomnia; painful extremities, sometimes bilateral wrist drop, more frequent bilateral foot drop with pain or pressure over the long nerves<br />
<br />
== Diagnosis ==<br />
An individual diagnosed with alcoholism and a sudden onset of memory difficulties should be tested for Korsakoff�s syndrome<br />
<br />
No specific test to diagnose this syndrome<br />
<br />
A careful examination of a patient�s mental state could reveal the syndrome<br />
<br />
Check the patient�s retention of factual information and the ability to learn new information<br />
<br />
A patient just recovering from Wenicke�s syndrome who begins to display memory difficulties is likely to have developed Korsakoff�s syndrome<br />
<br />
== Treatment ==<br />
Immediate administration of thiamine<br />
<br />
Any individual, regardless of the diagnosis of Korsakoff�s syndrome, should receive thiamine<br />
<br />
== Prognosis ==<br />
15�20% of all patients hospitalized for Wenicke�s syndrome will die of Korsakoff�s syndrome<br />
<br />
Half of those who survive the syndrome will have permanent ataxia (difficulty walking)<br />
<br />
The paralysis of the eye muscles almost always have complete recovery with thiamine treatment<br />
<br />
Improvement in symptoms can take months of thiamine replacement<br />
<br />
Memory-impaired for the rest of their lives<br />
<br />
Usually requires a supervised living situation<br />
<br />
== Prevention ==<br />
Maintaining a diet with sufficient intake of thiamine<br />
<br />
Supplement an inadequate diet with vitamin preparations<br />
<br />
Treat the underlying alcohol addiction<br />
<br />
== Works Cited==<br />
[http://www.healthatoz.com/healthatoz/Atoz/common/standard/transform.jsp?requestURI=/healthatoz/Atoz/ency/korsakoffs_syndrome.jsp Health A to Z]<br />
<br />
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korsakoff's_syndrome Korsakoff's Syndrome]<br />
<br />
[http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/wernicke_korsakoff/wernicke-korsakoff.htm Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome Information Page]</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Korsakoff%27s_syndromeKorsakoff's syndrome2008-04-24T16:09:32Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]<br />
[http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter8/images8/8-2l.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter8/chapter8Nutritional.html&h=399&w=400&sz=148&hl=en&start=10&um=1&tbnid=OhJrGWAQUh9iBM:&tbnh=124&tbnw=124&prev=/images%3Fq%3DKorsakoff%2527s%2Bsyndrome%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DN Pictures of a Patient's Brian with Korsakoff's Syndrome]<br />
<br />
== Definition ==<br />
� Korsakoff�s syndrome is a memory disorder caused by a deficiency of vitamin B1, also called thiamine<br />
<br />
� Named after Sergei Korsakoff, the neuropsychiatris who popularized the theory<br />
<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
<br />
== Causes and Symptoms ==<br />
== Diagnosis ==<br />
== Treatment ==<br />
== Prognosis ==<br />
== Prevention ==<br />
== Works Cited==<br />
[http://www.healthatoz.com/healthatoz/Atoz/common/standard/transform.jsp?requestURI=/healthatoz/Atoz/ency/korsakoffs_syndrome.jsp Health A to Z]<br />
<br />
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korsakoff's_syndrome Korsakoff's Syndrome]<br />
<br />
[http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/wernicke_korsakoff/wernicke-korsakoff.htm Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome Information Page]</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Korsakoff%27s_syndromeKorsakoff's syndrome2008-04-24T16:07:35Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]<br />
[http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter8/images8/8-2l.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter8/chapter8Nutritional.html&h=399&w=400&sz=148&hl=en&start=10&um=1&tbnid=OhJrGWAQUh9iBM:&tbnh=124&tbnw=124&prev=/images%3Fq%3DKorsakoff%2527s%2Bsyndrome%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DN Pictures of a Patient's Brian with Korsakoff's Syndrome]<br />
<br />
== Definition ==<br />
Korsakoff�s syndrome is a memory disorder caused by a deficiency of vitamin B1, also called thiamine<br />
<br />
Named after Sergei Korsakoff, the neuropsychiatris who popularized the theory<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
<br />
== Causes and Symptoms ==<br />
== Diagnosis ==<br />
== Treatment ==<br />
== Prognosis ==<br />
== Prevention ==<br />
== Works Cited==<br />
[http://www.healthatoz.com/healthatoz/Atoz/common/standard/transform.jsp?requestURI=/healthatoz/Atoz/ency/korsakoffs_syndrome.jsp Health A to Z]<br />
<br />
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korsakoff's_syndrome Korsakoff's Syndrome]<br />
<br />
[http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/wernicke_korsakoff/wernicke-korsakoff.htm Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome Information Page]</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Korsakoff%27s_syndromeKorsakoff's syndrome2008-04-24T16:05:27Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]<br />
[http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter8/images8/8-2l.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter8/chapter8Nutritional.html&h=399&w=400&sz=148&hl=en&start=10&um=1&tbnid=OhJrGWAQUh9iBM:&tbnh=124&tbnw=124&prev=/images%3Fq%3DKorsakoff%2527s%2Bsyndrome%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DN Pictures of a Patient's Brian with Korsakoff's Syndrome]<br />
<br />
== Definition ==<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
<br />
== Causes and Symptoms ==<br />
== Diagnosis ==<br />
== Treatment ==<br />
== Prognosis ==<br />
== Prevention ==<br />
== Works Cited==<br />
[http://www.healthatoz.com/healthatoz/Atoz/common/standard/transform.jsp?requestURI=/healthatoz/Atoz/ency/korsakoffs_syndrome.jsp Health A to Z]<br />
<br />
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korsakoff's_syndrome Korsakoff's Syndrome]<br />
<br />
[http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/wernicke_korsakoff/wernicke-korsakoff.htm Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome Information Page]</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Korsakoff%27s_syndromeKorsakoff's syndrome2008-04-24T16:03:12Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]<br />
[http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter8/images8/8-2l.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter8/chapter8Nutritional.html&h=399&w=400&sz=148&hl=en&start=10&um=1&tbnid=OhJrGWAQUh9iBM:&tbnh=124&tbnw=124&prev=/images%3Fq%3DKorsakoff%2527s%2Bsyndrome%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DN Pictures of a Patient's Brian with Korsakoff's Syndrome]<br />
<br />
== Definition ==<br />
� Korsakoff�s syndrome is a memory disorder caused by a deficiency of vitamin B1, also called thiamine<br />
<br />
� Named after Sergei Korsakoff, the neuropsychiatrist who popularized the theory<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
<br />
== Causes and Symptoms ==<br />
<br />
== Diagnosis ==<br />
<br />
== Treatment ==<br />
<br />
== Prognosis ==<br />
<br />
== Prevention ==<br />
<br />
== Works Cited==<br />
[http://www.healthatoz.com/healthatoz/Atoz/common/standard/transform.jsp?requestURI=/healthatoz/Atoz/ency/korsakoffs_syndrome.jsp Health A to Z]<br />
<br />
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korsakoff's_syndrome Korsakoff's Syndrome]<br />
<br />
[http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/wernicke_korsakoff/wernicke-korsakoff.htm Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome Information Page]</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Korsakoff%27s_syndromeKorsakoff's syndrome2008-04-24T15:53:53Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]<br />
[http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter8/images8/8-2l.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter8/chapter8Nutritional.html&h=399&w=400&sz=148&hl=en&start=10&um=1&tbnid=OhJrGWAQUh9iBM:&tbnh=124&tbnw=124&prev=/images%3Fq%3DKorsakoff%2527s%2Bsyndrome%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DN Pictures of a Patient's Brian with Korsakoff's Syndrome]<br />
<br />
== Definition ==<br />
� Korsakoff's syndrome is a memory disorder caused by a deficiency of vitamin B1, also called thiamine<br />
<br />
� Named after Sergei Korsakoff the neuropsychiatrist who popularized the theory<br />
<br />
== History ==<br />
� First mentioned in 1822 by James Jackson, a physician at Massachusetts General Hospital and professor at Boston Medical School, in a review of the peripheral neuritis of alcoholism<br />
<br />
� 1868 Sir Samuel Wilks, a physician at Guy�s Hospital, London, gave an account of the characteristic mental symptoms in an article on alcoholic paraplegia<br />
<br />
� In his doctoral thesis, Korsakoff called the condition �cerebropathia psychica toxaemica�<br />
<br />
� The term Korsakoff�s psychosis was introduced by Friedrich Jolly<br />
<br />
� Korsakoff emphasized the association of alcoholic polyneuropathy with a specific pattern of mental disturbances by stating: �This mental disorder appears at times in the form of sharply delineated irritable weakness of the mental sphere, at times in the form of confusion with characteristic mistakes in orientation for place, time and situation, and at times as an almost pure form of acute amnesia, where the recent memory is most severely involved, while the remote memory is well preserved . . . Some have suffered so widespread memory loss that they literally forget everything immediately."<br />
<br />
� Korsakoff�s psychosis was used originally to describe the combination of alcoholic polyneuropathy and characteristic mental disturbance and Korsakoff�s syndrome was the non-alcoholic form with or without polyneuritis, which resulted from acquired conditions such as head injury, brain tumors, and encephalitis<br />
<br />
� Blass and Gibson in 1977 identified a genetically determined disturbance of transketolase, which is a thiamine pyrophosphate-binding factor in fibroblasts<br />
<br />
� Individuals who are homozygous for this defect are at an increased risk for developing thiamine deficiency in circumstances of dietary inadequacy<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
<br />
== Causes and Symptoms ==<br />
<br />
== Diagnosis ==<br />
<br />
== Treatment ==<br />
<br />
== Prognosis ==<br />
<br />
== Prevention ==<br />
<br />
== Works Cited==<br />
[http://www.healthatoz.com/healthatoz/Atoz/common/standard/transform.jsp?requestURI=/healthatoz/Atoz/ency/korsakoffs_syndrome.jsp Health A to Z]<br />
<br />
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korsakoff's_syndrome Korsakoff's Syndrome]<br />
<br />
[http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/wernicke_korsakoff/wernicke-korsakoff.htm Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome Information Page]</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Korsakoff%27s_syndromeKorsakoff's syndrome2008-04-24T15:53:09Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]<br />
[http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter8/images8/8-2l.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter8/chapter8Nutritional.html&h=399&w=400&sz=148&hl=en&start=10&um=1&tbnid=OhJrGWAQUh9iBM:&tbnh=124&tbnw=124&prev=/images%3Fq%3DKorsakoff%2527s%2Bsyndrome%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DN Pictures of a Patient's Brian with Korsakoff's Syndrome]<br />
<br />
== Definition ==<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
<br />
== Causes and Symptoms ==<br />
<br />
== Diagnosis ==<br />
<br />
== Treatment ==<br />
<br />
== Prognosis ==<br />
<br />
== Prevention ==<br />
<br />
== Works Cited==<br />
[http://www.healthatoz.com/healthatoz/Atoz/common/standard/transform.jsp?requestURI=/healthatoz/Atoz/ency/korsakoffs_syndrome.jsp Health A to Z]<br />
<br />
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korsakoff's_syndrome Korsakoff's Syndrome]<br />
<br />
[http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/wernicke_korsakoff/wernicke-korsakoff.htm Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome Information Page]</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Korsakoff%27s_syndromeKorsakoff's syndrome2008-04-24T15:50:52Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]<br />
<br />
<br />
== Definition ==<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
<br />
== Causes and Symptoms ==<br />
<br />
== Diagnosis ==<br />
<br />
== Treatment ==<br />
<br />
== Prognosis ==<br />
<br />
== Prevention ==<br />
<br />
== Works Cited==<br />
[http://www.healthatoz.com/healthatoz/Atoz/common/standard/transform.jsp?requestURI=/healthatoz/Atoz/ency/korsakoffs_syndrome.jsp Health A to Z]<br />
<br />
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korsakoff's_syndrome Korsakoff's Syndrome]<br />
<br />
[http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/wernicke_korsakoff/wernicke-korsakoff.htm Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome Information Page]</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Korsakoff%27s_syndromeKorsakoff's syndrome2008-04-24T15:49:32Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]<br />
<br />
<br />
== Definition ==<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
<br />
== Causes and Symptoms ==<br />
<br />
== Diagnosis ==<br />
<br />
== Treatment ==<br />
<br />
== Prognosis ==<br />
<br />
== Prevention ==<br />
<br />
== Works Cited==<br />
[http://www.healthatoz.com/healthatoz/Atoz/common/standard/transform.jsp?requestURI=/healthatoz/Atoz/ency/korsakoffs_syndrome.jsp Health A to Z]<br />
<br />
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korsakoff's_syndrome Korsakoff's Syndrome]</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Korsakoff%27s_syndromeKorsakoff's syndrome2008-04-24T15:45:45Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Neuropsychological syndromes]]<br />
<br />
<br />
== Definition ==<br />
� Korsakoff's syndrome is a memory disorder caused by a deficiency of vitamin B1, also called thiamine<br />
<br />
� Named after Sergei Korsakoff the neuropsychiatrist who popularized the theory<br />
<br />
== History ==<br />
� First mentioned in 1822 by James Jackson, a physician at Massachusetts General Hospital and professor at Boston Medical School, in a review of the peripheral neuritis of alcoholism<br />
<br />
� 1868 Sir Samuel Wilks, a physician at Guy�s Hospital, London, gave an account of the characteristic mental symptoms in an article on alcoholic paraplegia<br />
<br />
� In his doctoral thesis, Korsakoff called the condition �cerebropathia psychica toxaemica�<br />
<br />
� The term Korsakoff�s psychosis was introduced by Friedrich Jolly<br />
<br />
� Korsakoff emphasized the association of alcoholic polyneuropathy with a specific pattern of mental disturbances by stating: �This mental disorder appears at times in the form of sharply delineated irritable weakness of the mental sphere, at times in the form of confusion with characteristic mistakes in orientation for place, time and situation, and at times as an almost pure form of acute amnesia, where the recent memory is most severely involved, while the remote memory is well preserved . . . Some have suffered so widespread memory loss that they literally forget everything immediately."<br />
<br />
� Korsakoff�s psychosis was used originally to describe the combination of alcoholic polyneuropathy and characteristic mental disturbance and Korsakoff�s syndrome was the non-alcoholic form with or without polyneuritis, which resulted from acquired conditions such as head injury, brain tumors, and encephalitis<br />
<br />
� Blass and Gibson in 1977 identified a genetically determined disturbance of transketolase, which is a thiamine pyrophosphate-binding factor in fibroblasts<br />
<br />
� Individuals who are homozygous for this defect are at an increased risk for developing thiamine deficiency in circumstances of dietary inadequacy<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
� The most common cause of thiamine deficiency is alcoholism in the U.S.<br />
<br />
� Thiamine deficiency can also be seen in patients undergoing dialysis, pregnant women with the condition called hyperemesis gravidarum, and patients after surgery who are given vitamin-free fluids for a prolonged period of time<br />
<br />
� Thiamine deficiency is a cause of disability in developing countries where the main source of food is rice lacking the nutritious outer husk<br />
<br />
� Wenicke�s syndrome often precedes Korsakoff�s syndrome<br />
<br />
� Commonly referred to as Wenicke-Korsakoff�s syndrome<br />
<br />
== Causes and Symptoms ==<br />
� The high calorie nature of alcohol is one of the main reasons that alcoholism leads to thiamine deficiency<br />
<br />
� A large intake of alcohol substitutes alcohol for other calorie sources that contain more nutrition<br />
<br />
� Food intake drops and multiple vitamin deficiencies develop as alcoholism grows<br />
<br />
� It is believed that alcohol increases the body�s requirement for B vitamins, while also interfering with the absorption of vitamin B1 from the intestine and impairing the body�s ability to store and use B1. <br />
<br />
� Thiamine provides energy to the neurons of the brain in a variety of reactions<br />
<br />
� As thiamine becomes unavailable, these reactions cannot be carried out <br />
<br />
� Because the end products of these reactions cannot be formed, substrates begin to accumulate and cause damage to the neurons<br />
<br />
� The mamillary bodies and the thalamus of the diencephalon is responsible for the symptoms of this syndrome<br />
<br />
� Those with Korsakoff�s syndrome have difficulty with their memory<br />
<br />
� Anterograde amnesia- the ability to learn new information is greatly affected, while intelligence and memory of past events is relatively unaffected<br />
<br />
� Confabulation- a person with Korsakoff�s syndrome fills in the gaps of their memory with fabricated or imagined information<br />
<br />
� Complete unawareness of the memory defect and complete lack of worry or concern when it is pointed out<br />
<br />
� Involves neuronal loss (damage to neurons), gliosis (result of damage to supporting cells of the central nervous system), and hemorrhage (bleeding in mammillary bodies)<br />
<br />
� Other symptoms may include delirium, anxiety, fear, depression, confusion, delusions and insomnia; painful extremities, sometimes bilateral wrist drop, more frequent bilateral foot drop with pain or pressure over the long nerves<br />
<br />
== Diagnosis ==<br />
� An individual diagnosed with alcoholism and a sudden onset of memory difficulties should be tested for Korsakoff�s syndrome<br />
<br />
� No specific test to diagnose this syndrome<br />
<br />
� A careful examination of a patient�s mental state could reveal the syndrome<br />
<br />
� Check the patient�s retention of factual information and the ability to learn new information<br />
<br />
� A patient just recovering from Wenicke�s syndrome who begins to display memory difficulties is likely to have developed Korsakoff�s syndrome<br />
<br />
== Treatment ==<br />
� Immediate administration of thiamine<br />
<br />
� Any individual, regardless of the diagnosis of Korsakoff�s syndrome, should receive thiamine<br />
<br />
== Prognosis ==<br />
� 15�20% of all patients hospitalized for Wenicke�s syndrome will die of Korsakoff�s syndrome<br />
<br />
� Half of those who survive the syndrome will have permanent ataxia (difficulty walking)<br />
<br />
� The paralysis of the eye muscles almost always have complete recovery with thiamine treatment<br />
<br />
� Improvement in symptoms can take months of thiamine replacement<br />
<br />
� Memory-impaired for the rest of their lives<br />
<br />
� Usually requires a supervised living situation<br />
<br />
== Prevention ==<br />
� Maintaining a diet with sufficient intake of thiamine<br />
<br />
� Supplement an inadequate diet with vitamin preparations<br />
<br />
� Treat the underlying alcohol addiction<br />
<br />
== Works Cited==<br />
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korsakoff's_syndrome Korsakoff's Syndrome]</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Primary_motor_cortexPrimary motor cortex2008-04-24T15:43:29Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Brain areas]]<br />
<br />
[http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/cerebrum_1.gif Picture of Primary Motor Cortex]<br />
== Background ==<br />
• Primary motor cortex is also called M1<br />
<br />
• One of the principle areas involved in motor function<br />
<br />
• Located in the frontal lobe of the brain along the precentral gyrus<br />
<br />
• The role is to generate neural impulses that control the execution of movement<br />
<br />
• Signals from M1 cross the body’s midline to activate skeletal muscles on the opposite side of the body<br />
<br />
• The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body <br />
<br />
• The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body<br />
== Somatotopic Representation ==<br />
• Every part of the body is represented in the primary motor cortex<br />
<br />
• Body part representations are arranged somatotopically<br />
<br />
• The foot is next to the leg, next to the trunk, next to the arm, which is next to the hand<br />
<br />
• The amount of brain matter devoted to a particular body part represents the amount of control that the primary motor cortex has over that body part<br />
<br />
• A lot of cortical space is devoted to complex hand and finger movements; therefore, they have larger representations in M1<br />
== Corticospinal Tract ==<br />
• Neurons in M1, supplementary motor area, and premotor cortex give rise to fibers of the corticospinal tract<br />
<br />
• The corticospinal tract is the only direct pathway from the cortex to the spine<br />
<br />
• This tract is composed of over a million fibers<br />
<br />
• The fibers descend through the brainstem and cross to the opposite side of the body<br />
<br />
• The fibers then continue to descend through the spine, terminating at the appropriate spinal levels<br />
<br />
• This tract is the main pathway for control of voluntary movement in humans<br />
== Damage to Primary Motor Cortex ==<br />
• Lesions in the primary motor cortex result in paralysis of the contralateral side of the body<br />
== Works Cited ==<br />
[http://www.brainconnection.com/topics/?main=anat/motor-anat The Anatomy of Movement]<br />
<br />
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_motor_cortex Primary Motor Cortex]</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Primary_motor_cortexPrimary motor cortex2008-04-24T15:41:36Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Brain areas]]<br />
<br />
[http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/cerebrum_1.gif Picture of Primary Motor Cortex]<br />
== Background ==<br />
<br />
== Somatotopic Representation ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Damage to Primary Motor Cortex ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Works Cited ==<br />
[http://www.brainconnection.com/topics/?main=anat/motor-anat The Anatomy of Movement]<br />
<br />
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_motor_cortex Primary Motor Cortex]</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Primary_motor_cortexPrimary motor cortex2008-04-24T15:40:13Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Brain areas]]<br />
<br />
[http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/cerebrum_1.gif Picture of Primary Motor Cortex]<br />
== Background ==<br />
� Primary motor cortex is also called M1<br />
<br />
� One of the principle areas involved in motor function<br />
<br />
� Located in the frontal lobe of the brain along the precentral gyrus<br />
<br />
� The role is to generate neural impulses that control the execution of movement<br />
<br />
� Signals from M1 cross the body�s midline to activate skeletal muscles on the opposite side of the body<br />
<br />
� The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body <br />
<br />
� The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body<br />
== Somatotopic Representation ==<br />
� Every part of the body is represented in the primary motor cortex<br />
<br />
� Body part representations are arranged somatotopically<br />
<br />
� The foot is next to the leg, next to the trunk, next to the arm, which is next to the hand<br />
<br />
� The amount of brain matter devoted to a particular body part represents the amount of control that the primary motor cortex has over that body part<br />
<br />
� A lot of cortical space is devoted to complex hand and finger movements; therefore, they have larger representations in M1<br />
== Corticospinal Tract ==<br />
� Neurons in M1, supplementary motor area, and premotor cortex give rise to fibers of the corticospinal tract<br />
<br />
� The corticospinal tract is the only direct pathway from the cortex to the spine<br />
<br />
� This tract is composed of over a million fibers<br />
<br />
� The fibers descend through the brainstem and cross to the opposite side of the body<br />
<br />
� The fibers then continue to descend through the spine, terminating at the appropriate spinal levels<br />
<br />
� This tract is the main pathway for control of voluntary movement in humans<br />
<br />
== Damage to Primary Motor Cortex ==<br />
� Lesions in the primary motor cortex result in paralysis of the contralateral side of the body<br />
<br />
== Works Cited ==<br />
[http://www.brainconnection.com/topics/?main=anat/motor-anat The Anatomy of Movement]</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Primary_motor_cortexPrimary motor cortex2008-04-24T15:37:20Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Brain areas]]<br />
<br />
[http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/cerebrum_1.gif Picture of Primary Motor Cortex]<br />
== Background ==<br />
• Primary motor cortex is also called M1<br />
<br />
• One of the principle areas involved in motor function<br />
<br />
• Located in the frontal lobe of the brain along the precentral gyrus<br />
<br />
• The role is to generate neural impulses that control the execution of movement<br />
<br />
• Signals from M1 cross the body’s midline to activate skeletal muscles on the opposite side of the body<br />
<br />
• The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body <br />
<br />
• The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body<br />
== Somatotopic Representation ==<br />
• Every part of the body is represented in the primary motor cortex<br />
<br />
• Body part representations are arranged somatotopically<br />
<br />
• The foot is next to the leg, next to the trunk, next to the arm, which is next to the hand<br />
<br />
• The amount of brain matter devoted to a particular body part represents the amount of control that the primary motor cortex has over that body part<br />
<br />
• A lot of cortical space is devoted to complex hand and finger movements; therefore, they have larger representations in M1<br />
== Corticospinal Tract ==<br />
• Neurons in M1, supplementary motor area, and premotor cortex give rise to fibers of the corticospinal tract<br />
<br />
• The corticospinal tract is the only direct pathway from the cortex to the spine<br />
<br />
• This tract is composed of over a million fibers<br />
<br />
• The fibers descend through the brainstem and cross to the opposite side of the body<br />
<br />
• The fibers then continue to descend through the spine, terminating at the appropriate spinal levels<br />
<br />
• This tract is the main pathway for control of voluntary movement in humans<br />
<br />
== Damage to Primary Motor Cortex ==<br />
• Lesions in the primary motor cortex result in paralysis of the contralateral side of the body</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Primary_motor_cortexPrimary motor cortex2008-04-24T15:36:54Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Brain areas]]<br />
<br />
[http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/cerebrum_1.gif Picture of Primary Motor Cortex]<br />
== Background ==<br />
• Primary motor cortex is also called M1<br />
<br />
• One of the principle areas involved in motor function<br />
<br />
• Located in the frontal lobe of the brain along the precentral gyrus<br />
<br />
• The role is to generate neural impulses that control the execution of movement<br />
<br />
• Signals from M1 cross the body’s midline to activate skeletal muscles on the opposite side of the body<br />
<br />
• The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body <br />
<br />
• The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body<br />
== Somatotopic Representation ==<br />
• Every part of the body is represented in the primary motor cortex<br />
<br />
• Body part representations are arranged somatotopically<br />
<br />
• The foot is next to the leg, next to the trunk, next to the arm, which is next to the hand<br />
<br />
• The amount of brain matter devoted to a particular body part represents the amount of control that the primary motor cortex has over that body part<br />
<br />
• A lot of cortical space is devoted to complex hand and finger movements; therefore, they have larger representations in M1<br />
== Corticospinal Tract ==<br />
• Neurons in M1, supplementary motor area, and premotor cortex give rise to fibers of the corticospinal tract<br />
<br />
• The corticospinal tract is the only direct pathway from the cortex to the spine<br />
<br />
• This tract is composed of over a million fibers<br />
<br />
• The fibers descend through the brainstem and cross to the opposite side of the body<br />
<br />
• The fibers then continue to descend through the spine, terminating at the appropriate spinal levels<br />
<br />
• This tract is the main pathway for control of voluntary movement in humans<br />
<br />
== Damage to Primary Motor Cortex ==<br />
� Lesions in the primary motor cortex result in paralysis of the contralateral side of the body</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Primary_motor_cortexPrimary motor cortex2008-04-24T15:36:09Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Brain areas]]<br />
<br />
[http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/cerebrum_1.gif Picture of Primary Motor Cortex]<br />
== Background ==<br />
• Primary motor cortex is also called M1<br />
<br />
• One of the principle areas involved in motor function<br />
<br />
• Located in the frontal lobe of the brain along the precentral gyrus<br />
<br />
• The role is to generate neural impulses that control the execution of movement<br />
<br />
• Signals from M1 cross the body’s midline to activate skeletal muscles on the opposite side of the body<br />
<br />
• The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body <br />
<br />
• The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body<br />
== Somatotopic Representation ==<br />
• Every part of the body is represented in the primary motor cortex<br />
<br />
• Body part representations are arranged somatotopically<br />
<br />
• The foot is next to the leg, next to the trunk, next to the arm, which is next to the hand<br />
<br />
• The amount of brain matter devoted to a particular body part represents the amount of control that the primary motor cortex has over that body part<br />
<br />
• A lot of cortical space is devoted to complex hand and finger movements; therefore, they have larger representations in M1<br />
== Corticospinal Tract ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Damage to Primary Motor Cortex ==<br />
� Lesions in the primary motor cortex result in paralysis of the contralateral side of the body</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Primary_motor_cortexPrimary motor cortex2008-04-24T15:34:57Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Brain areas]]<br />
<br />
[http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/cerebrum_1.gif Picture of Primary Motor Cortex]<br />
== Background ==<br />
• Primary motor cortex is also called M1<br />
<br />
• One of the principle areas involved in motor function<br />
<br />
• Located in the frontal lobe of the brain along the precentral gyrus<br />
<br />
• The role is to generate neural impulses that control the execution of movement<br />
<br />
• Signals from M1 cross the body’s midline to activate skeletal muscles on the opposite side of the body<br />
<br />
• The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body <br />
<br />
• The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body<br />
== Somatotopic Representation ==<br />
� Every part of the body is represented in the primary motor cortex<br />
<br />
� Body part representations are arranged somatotopically<br />
<br />
� The foot is next to the leg, next to the trunk, next to the arm, which is next to the hand<br />
<br />
� The amount of brain matter devoted to a particular body part represents the amount of control that the primary motor cortex has over that body part<br />
<br />
� A lot of cortical space is devoted to complex hand and finger movements; therefore, they have larger representations in M1<br />
== Corticospinal Tract ==<br />
� Neurons in M1, supplementary motor area, and premotor cortex give rise to fibers of the corticospinal tract<br />
<br />
� The corticospinal tract is the only direct pathway from the cortex to the spine<br />
<br />
� This tract is composed of over a million fibers<br />
<br />
� The fibers descend through the brainstem and cross to the opposite side of the body<br />
<br />
� The fibers then continue to descend through the spine, terminating at the appropriate spinal levels<br />
<br />
� This tract is the main pathway for control of voluntary movement in humans<br />
<br />
== Damage to Primary Motor Cortex ==<br />
� Lesions in the primary motor cortex result in paralysis of the contralateral side of the body</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Primary_motor_cortexPrimary motor cortex2008-04-24T15:33:26Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Brain areas]]<br />
<br />
[http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/cerebrum_1.gif Picture of Primary Motor Cortex]<br />
== Background ==<br />
� Primary motor cortex is also called M1<br />
<br />
� One of the principle areas involved in motor function<br />
<br />
� Located in the frontal lobe of the brain along the precentral gyrus<br />
<br />
� The role is to generate neural impulses that control the execution of movement<br />
<br />
� Signals from M1 cross the body�s midline to activate skeletal muscles on the opposite side of the body<br />
<br />
� The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body <br />
<br />
� The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body<br />
== Somatotopic Representation ==<br />
� Every part of the body is represented in the primary motor cortex<br />
<br />
� Body part representations are arranged somatotopically<br />
<br />
� The foot is next to the leg, next to the trunk, next to the arm, which is next to the hand<br />
<br />
� The amount of brain matter devoted to a particular body part represents the amount of control that the primary motor cortex has over that body part<br />
<br />
� A lot of cortical space is devoted to complex hand and finger movements; therefore, they have larger representations in M1<br />
== Corticospinal Tract ==<br />
� Neurons in M1, supplementary motor area, and premotor cortex give rise to fibers of the corticospinal tract<br />
<br />
� The corticospinal tract is the only direct pathway from the cortex to the spine<br />
<br />
� This tract is composed of over a million fibers<br />
<br />
� The fibers descend through the brainstem and cross to the opposite side of the body<br />
<br />
� The fibers then continue to descend through the spine, terminating at the appropriate spinal levels<br />
<br />
� This tract is the main pathway for control of voluntary movement in humans<br />
<br />
== Damage to Primary Motor Cortex ==<br />
� Lesions in the primary motor cortex result in paralysis of the contralateral side of the body</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Primary_motor_cortexPrimary motor cortex2008-04-24T15:23:46Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Brain areas]]<br />
<br />
<br />
== Background ==<br />
• Primary motor cortex is also called M1<br />
<br />
• One of the principle areas involved in motor function<br />
<br />
• Located in the frontal lobe of the brain along the precentral gyrus<br />
<br />
• The role is to generate neural impulses that control the execution of movement<br />
<br />
• Signals from M1 cross the body’s midline to activate skeletal muscles on the opposite side of the body<br />
<br />
• The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body <br />
<br />
• The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body<br />
== Somatotopic Representation ==<br />
• Every part of the body is represented in the primary motor cortex<br />
<br />
• Body part representations are arranged somatotopically<br />
<br />
• The foot is next to the leg, next to the trunk, next to the arm, which is next to the hand<br />
<br />
• The amount of brain matter devoted to a particular body part represents the amount of control that the primary motor cortex has over that body part<br />
<br />
• A lot of cortical space is devoted to complex hand and finger movements; therefore, they have larger representations in M1<br />
== Corticospinal Tract ==<br />
• Neurons in M1, supplementary motor area, and premotor cortex give rise to fibers of the corticospinal tract<br />
<br />
• The corticospinal tract is the only direct pathway from the cortex to the spine<br />
<br />
• This tract is composed of over a million fibers<br />
<br />
• The fibers descend through the brainstem and cross to the opposite side of the body<br />
<br />
• The fibers then continue to descend through the spine, terminating at the appropriate spinal levels<br />
<br />
• This tract is the main pathway for control of voluntary movement in humans<br />
<br />
== Damage to Primary Motor Cortex ==<br />
• Lesions in the primary motor cortex result in paralysis of the contralateral side of the body</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Primary_motor_cortexPrimary motor cortex2008-04-24T15:23:05Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Brain areas]]<br />
<br />
<br />
== Background ==<br />
• Primary motor cortex is also called M1<br />
<br />
• One of the principle areas involved in motor function<br />
<br />
• Located in the frontal lobe of the brain along the precentral gyrus<br />
<br />
• The role is to generate neural impulses that control the execution of movement<br />
<br />
• Signals from M1 cross the body’s midline to activate skeletal muscles on the opposite side of the body<br />
<br />
• The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body <br />
<br />
• The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body<br />
== Somatotopic Representation ==<br />
• Every part of the body is represented in the primary motor cortex<br />
<br />
• Body part representations are arranged somatotopically<br />
<br />
• The foot is next to the leg, next to the trunk, next to the arm, which is next to the hand<br />
<br />
• The amount of brain matter devoted to a particular body part represents the amount of control that the primary motor cortex has over that body part<br />
<br />
• A lot of cortical space is devoted to complex hand and finger movements; therefore, they have larger representations in M1<br />
== Corticospinal Tract ==<br />
• Neurons in M1, supplementary motor area, and premotor cortex give rise to fibers of the corticospinal tract<br />
<br />
• The corticospinal tract is the only direct pathway from the cortex to the spine<br />
<br />
• This tract is composed of over a million fibers<br />
<br />
• The fibers descend through the brainstem and cross to the opposite side of the body<br />
<br />
• The fibers then continue to descend through the spine, terminating at the appropriate spinal levels<br />
<br />
• This tract is the main pathway for control of voluntary movement in humans</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Primary_motor_cortexPrimary motor cortex2008-04-24T15:22:01Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Brain areas]]<br />
<br />
<br />
== Background ==<br />
• Primary motor cortex is also called M1<br />
<br />
• One of the principle areas involved in motor function<br />
<br />
• Located in the frontal lobe of the brain along the precentral gyrus<br />
<br />
• The role is to generate neural impulses that control the execution of movement<br />
<br />
• Signals from M1 cross the body’s midline to activate skeletal muscles on the opposite side of the body<br />
<br />
• The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body <br />
<br />
• The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body<br />
== Somatotopic Representation ==<br />
• Every part of the body is represented in the primary motor cortex<br />
<br />
• Body part representations are arranged somatotopically<br />
<br />
• The foot is next to the leg, next to the trunk, next to the arm, which is next to the hand<br />
<br />
• The amount of brain matter devoted to a particular body part represents the amount of control that the primary motor cortex has over that body part<br />
<br />
• A lot of cortical space is devoted to complex hand and finger movements; therefore, they have larger representations in M1</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Primary_motor_cortexPrimary motor cortex2008-04-24T15:19:26Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Brain areas]]<br />
<br />
== Background ==<br />
<br />
� Primary motor cortex is also called M1<br />
<br />
� One of the principle areas involved in motor function<br />
<br />
� Located in the frontal lobe of the brain along the precentral gyrus<br />
<br />
� The role is to generate neural impulses that control the execution of movement<br />
<br />
� Signals from M1 cross the body�s midline to activate skeletal muscles on the opposite side of the body<br />
<br />
� The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body <br />
<br />
� The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body<br />
<br />
== Somatotopic Representation ==<br />
<br />
� Every part of the body is represented in the primary motor cortex<br />
<br />
� Body part representations are arranged somatotopically<br />
<br />
� The foot is next to the leg, next to the trunk, next to the arm, which is next to the hand<br />
<br />
� The amount of brain matter devoted to a particular body part represents the amount of control that the primary motor cortex has over that body part<br />
<br />
� A lot of cortical space is devoted to complex hand and finger movements; therefore, they have larger representations in M1<br />
<br />
== Corticospinal Tract ==<br />
<br />
� Neurons in M1, supplementary motor area, and premotor cortex give rise to fibers of the corticospinal tract<br />
<br />
� The corticospinal tract is the only direct pathway from the cortex to the spine<br />
<br />
� This tract is composed of over a million fibers<br />
<br />
� The fibers descend through the brainstem and cross to the opposite side of the body<br />
<br />
� The fibers then continue to descend through the spine, terminating at the appropriate spinal levels<br />
<br />
� This tract is the main pathway for control of voluntary movement in humans<br />
<br />
� Lesions in the primary motor cortex result in paralysis of the contralateral side of the body<br />
<br />
== Works Cited ==<br />
� The Anatomy of Movement: http:www.brainconnection.com/topics/?main=anat/motor-anat<br />
<br />
� Wikkipedia: Primary Motor Cortex: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary¬_motor_cortex</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Primary_motor_cortexPrimary motor cortex2008-04-24T15:14:46Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Brain areas]]<br />
<br />
== Background ==<br />
<br />
• Primary motor cortex is also called M1<br />
<br />
• One of the principle areas involved in motor function<br />
<br />
• Located in the frontal lobe of the brain along the precentral gyrus<br />
<br />
• The role is to generate neural impulses that control the execution of movement<br />
<br />
• Signals from M1 cross the body’s midline to activate skeletal muscles on the opposite side of the body<br />
<br />
• The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body <br />
<br />
• The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body<br />
<br />
== Somatotopic Representation ==<br />
<br />
• Every part of the body is represented in the primary motor cortex<br />
<br />
• Body part representations are arranged somatotopically<br />
<br />
• The foot is next to the leg, next to the trunk, next to the arm, which is next to the hand<br />
<br />
• The amount of brain matter devoted to a particular body part represents the amount of control that the primary motor cortex has over that body part<br />
<br />
• A lot of cortical space is devoted to complex hand and finger movements; therefore, they have larger representations in M1<br />
<br />
== Corticospinal Tract ==<br />
<br />
• Neurons in M1, supplementary motor area, and premotor cortex give rise to fibers of the corticospinal tract<br />
<br />
• The corticospinal tract is the only direct pathway from the cortex to the spine<br />
<br />
• This tract is composed of over a million fibers<br />
<br />
• The fibers descend through the brainstem and cross to the opposite side of the body<br />
<br />
• The fibers then continue to descend through the spine, terminating at the appropriate spinal levels<br />
<br />
• This tract is the main pathway for control of voluntary movement in humans<br />
<br />
• Lesions in the primary motor cortex result in paralysis of the contralateral side of the body<br />
<br />
== Works Cited ==</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/D.B._(blindsight_patient)D.B. (blindsight patient)2008-04-14T17:55:37Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Neuropsychological profiles]]<br />
<br />
== Blindsight==<br />
· A condition in which the sufferer responds to visual stimuli without consciously perceiving them<br />
<br />
· Historical origins stem from animal research<br />
<br />
· The primate retina sends its neural output to through the thalamus and to the visual cortex area labeled V1 or striate cortex<br />
<br />
· When the striate cortex is removed in animal studies, the animals still carry out visual discriminations; however their capacity changes<br />
<br />
· Subjects are able to still carry out visual discrimination because the output from the eye also reaches other brain targets in the midbrain and thalamus that remain intact when the V1 is removed<br />
<br />
· Human subjects that suffer a loss of V1 claim to be blind, even though they can carry out visual discrimination tasks<br />
<br />
· The secondary routes used when the primary visual cortex has been removed are not sufficient to maintain the feeling of sight, which could explain why blindsight patients have the subjective feeling that he or she is blind, but can report visual information when forced to guess <br />
<br />
== History==<br />
· Originally discovered when trying to compare the visual cortex between monkeys and humans<br />
<br />
· Recently, it has become clear that monkeys without primary visual cortex can discriminate shapes, demonstrate contrast sensitivity functions over a range of spatial frequencies, and have measurable acuity that is reduced from normal<br />
<br />
· It has also been shown that these monkeys have remarkable sensitivity to small and brief visual events and will fixate on them or reach for them<br />
<br />
· Monkeys with blindsight are also sensitive to the detection of movement<br />
<br />
· Human subjects are blind in comparison to monkeys when the primary visual cortex is removed<br />
<br />
· Early neurologists, Poppelreuter and Riddoch, studied World War I victims and claimed that there could be some residual function<br />
<br />
· Teuber and colleagues supported this claim when studying World War II victims<br />
<br />
· Progress in the comparison of monkeys to humans was made when researchers began studying humans in the same manner as monkeys by having them reach out to touch briefly presented stimuli<br />
<br />
· In 1973 Held and Frost completed this test on subjects with their visual cortex removed because they believed that midbrain pathways were implicated in the saccadic control, which survived when visual cortex was removed<br />
<br />
· Even though the subjects claimed that they could not see the stimuli in their field defects, there was a significant correlation between stimulus location and target eye position<br />
<br />
== D.B.==<br />
'''The First Studied Blindsight Patient'''<br />
· D.B.’s primary visual cortex was removed surgically from his right hemisphere to ablate a benign tumor that had invaded the area<br />
<br />
· The primary visual cortex relays visual information from the eyes to higher coritcal visual areas<br />
<br />
· As a result of the removal of his right primary visual cortex, D.B. became blind in his left visual field<br />
<br />
· He was tested in a way similar to animal testing by being told to guess at answers whether or not he can see them<br />
<br />
· Termed forced-choice testing<br />
<br />
· The result of this testing in D.B was that he could succeed ina variety of discriminations tasks by guessing in his blind field, even though he said he did not see in his blind field<br />
<br />
· He could tell the direction a grating was oriented and whether a stimulus was moving or stationary<br />
<br />
· His visual acuity was tested by varying the spacing of a grating and forcing D.B. to guess whether there were lines or no lines<br />
<br />
· D.B.’s ability to reach out and locate the position of a stimuli in his blind field was good, but not normal<br />
<br />
· This ability matched the ability of monkeys tested without primary visual cortex<br />
<br />
· D.B. had a high level of visual proficiency in making discriminations in the absence of being aware of a stimuli<br />
<br />
· Weiskrantz and Warrington completed the testing on D.B. begning in the 1970s and the testing continues today <br />
<br />
· When the researchers informed D.B. of his test results indicating his impressive performance without awareness, he was astonished because he thought he could not see in his blind field<br />
<br />
· D.B. remained convinced that he was simply guessing and that his performance was based on chance<br />
<br />
· D.B. was studied by Weiskrantz and Warrington for over 10 years<br />
<br />
· In 1986 the two researchers published a book titled “Blindsight” regarding D.B.’s capacity to detect and discriminate orientation, movement, and form under a variety of conditions<br />
<br />
· D.B.’s basic phenomenon of “unconscious” visual capacity remains; however, his sensitivity has improved <br />
<br />
== Results of Blindsight Studies==<br />
· The first results obtained by Weiskrantz and Warrington were published in 1974<br />
<br />
· The term “blindsight” was created as a result of Weiskrantz having to respond urgently to produce a title for a seminar he was invited to present at regarding D.B.’s phenomenon<br />
<br />
· The first occurance of the term “blindsight” in print occurred in 1974 in a short article by Sanders, et. al. describing the phenomenon of visual function in a field defect<br />
<br />
· The term stuck and now appears in dictionaries and papers throughout the globe<br />
<br />
· It was also discovered that rapid events such as rapid movement or the sudden onset of an object produced a “feeling” that some event had occurred even though it was not seen, which became known as Blidsight Type 2<br />
<br />
· Blindsight Type 1 is the situation in which there is no reported experience<br />
<br />
· Recently it has become evident that this phenomenon is not rare<br />
<br />
== Works Cited ==</div>BPEASEhttp://72.14.177.54/psy3241/Halstead-Reitan_batteryHalstead-Reitan battery2008-04-14T15:18:22Z<p>BPEASE: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Neuropsychological methods]]<br />
<br />
<br />
== Definition ==<br />
• Fixed set of eight tests used to evaluate brain and nervous system functioning in individuals aged 15 years and older<br />
<br />
• Children’s versions are the Halstead Neuropsychological Test Battery for Older Children (ages 9-14) and the Reitan Indiana Neuropsychological Test Battery (ages 5-8)<br />
<br />
== Purpose ==<br />
• Evaluates a wide range of nervous system and brain functions including visual input, auditory input, tactual input, verbal communication, spatial perception, sequential perception, the ability to analyze information, form mental concepts, make judgements, motor output, attention, concentration, and memory<br />
<br />
• Used to evaluate individuals with suspected brain damage<br />
<br />
• Provides useful information regarding the cause of damage, which part of the brain was damaged, whether the damage occurred during childhood development , and if the damage is getting worse, staying the same, or getting better<br />
<br />
• The information gathered about the severity of impairment and areas of personal strengths can be used to develop plans for patient rehabilitation and care<br />
<br />
== Precautions ==<br />
• Requires administration by a professional examiner and interpretation by a trained psychologist<br />
<br />
• Test results are affected by the examinee’s age, education level, intellectual ability, gender, and ethnicity, all of which need to be taken into account when analyzing the results<br />
<br />
• Fixed battery of tests, which means that unnecessary information may be gathered and some important information may be missed<br />
<br />
• Requires 5-6 hours to complete, patience, stamina, and cost<br />
<br />
• Criticized because it does not include specific tests of memory; instead, memory is evaluated within the context of other tests<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
• The Halstead-Reitan battery was created by Ward Halstead and Ralph Reitan<br />
<br />
• The creation of the test was based on studies of patients with neurologic impairments at the University of Chicago<br />
<br />
• Halstead recognized the need for an evaluation of brain functioning that was more extensive than intelligence testing<br />
<br />
• Initially Halstead chose a set of 10 tests, all of which, except 3, are included in the current Halstead-Reitan battery<br />
<br />
• Ralph Reitan was one of Halstead’s students who contributed to the battery by researching the tests’ ability to identify neurological problems<br />
<br />
• Reitan diagnosed 8,000 patients using only their test results, without meeting the patients or knowing anything about their background, which provided support for the effectiveness of the battery<br />
<br />
• Reitan adapted the original battery by including additional tests<br />
<br />
• The Halstead-Reitan has been researched more than any other neuropsychological test battery<br />
<br />
• Research supports the ability of the battery to detect impairment accurately in a large range of neuropsychological functions<br />
<br />
• 8 core tests<br />
<br />
== Category Test ==<br />
<br />
• Total of 208 pictures consisting of geometric figures are presented<br />
<br />
• Individuals are asked to decide whether they are reminded of the number 1, 2, 3, or 4 for each picture and press a key corresponding to their choice<br />
<br />
• If the individual chooses correctly a chime sounds and if they choose incorrectly a buzzer sounds<br />
<br />
• The pictures are presented in 7 subtests<br />
<br />
• The key to the category test is that one principle or common characteristic underlies each subtest<br />
<br />
• The numbers 1-4 represent the possible principles<br />
<br />
• If the subject recognizes the correct principle in one picture they will respond correctly for the remaining pictures in that subtest<br />
<br />
• The next subtest may have the same or different underlying principle and the subject must once again try to determine the principle using the feedback of the chime and buzzer<br />
<br />
• The last subtest contains two underlying principles <br />
<br />
• Test takes 1 hour, but individuals with severe brain damage may take up to 2 hours<br />
<br />
• Considered to be the battery’s most effect test for detecting brain damage<br />
<br />
• Does not help determine where the problem is occurring in the brain<br />
<br />
• Evaluates the ability to draw specific conclusions from general information<br />
<br />
• Also aids in detecting one’s ability to solve complex and unique problems and one’s ability to learn from experience<br />
<br />
• The children’s versions consist of 80 items and 5 subtests for young children and 168 and 6 subtests for older children<br />
<br />
• Scoring involves recording the number of errors<br />
<br />
• Scores above 41 are considered indicative of brain impairment for ages 15-45<br />
<br />
• Scores above 46 indicate impairment for ages 46 and older<br />
<br />
• Recommended cutoffs vary depending on age and education level<br />
<br />
== Tactual Performance Test ==<br />
• Board containing 10 cut-out shapes and ten wooden blocks matching those shapes are placed in front of a blindfolded individual <br />
<br />
• Instructed to use only their dominant hand to place the blocks in their appropriate space on the board<br />
<br />
• Same procedure repeated using the non-dominant hand only<br />
<br />
• Same procedure repeated using both hands<br />
<br />
• Board, blocks, and then blindfold are removed<br />
<br />
• The individual is then asked to draw the board and the shapes in their proper locations from memory only<br />
<br />
• Takes 15-50 minutes to complete<br />
<br />
• Time limit of 15 minutes per trial<br />
<br />
• Evaluates sensory ability, memory for shapes and spatial location, motor functions, and the brain’s ability to transfer information between its two hemispheres<br />
<br />
• Detection of brain damage<br />
<br />
• Helps to determine which side of the brain damage may have occurred<br />
<br />
• For children under 15, only 6 shapes are used<br />
<br />
• Scoring involves the time to complete each of the 3 blindfolded trials and the total time for all trials combined, the number of shapes recalled, and the number of shapes drawn in their correct locations<br />
<br />
• Trial for the non-dominant hand should be 20 to 30 percent faster than the trial for the dominant hand because of practice effects<br />
<br />
• If the non-dominant hand is slower or more than 30 percent faster, brain damage is possible<br />
<br />
• Injuries of the arms, shoulders, or hands can also affect performance<br />
<br />
• Scores are adjusted depending on education level and age<br />
<br />
== Trail Making Test ==<br />
• Consists of 2 parts<br />
<br />
• Part A: 25 numbered circles randomly arranged and individuals are instructed to draw lines between the circles in increasing sequential order until they reach the circle labeled “end”<br />
<br />
• Part B: A page with circles containing the letters A through L and 13 numbered circles intermixed and randomly arranged and individuals are instructed to connect the circles by drawing lines alternating between numbers and letters in sequential order, until they reach the circle labeled “end”<br />
<br />
• If mistakes are made, they are quickly brought to the individuals attention and they continue from the last correct circle<br />
<br />
• Test takes 5-10 minutes to complete<br />
<br />
• Evaluates information processing speed, visual scanning ability, integration of visual and motor functions, letter and number recognition and sequencing, and the ability to maintain two different trains of though<br />
<br />
• A Color Trails Test is used for children and individuals of different cultures in which colors are used instead of numbers and letters<br />
<br />
• Scoring is the time to complete each part<br />
<br />
• Errors increase the total time<br />
<br />
• For adults, scores above 40 seconds for Part A and 91 seconds for Part B indicate brain impairment<br />
<br />
• However it is important to consider other variables such as age when scoring<br />
<br />
== Finger Tapping Test ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Rhythm Test ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Speech Sounds Perception Test ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Reitan-Indiana Aphasia Screening Test ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Reitan-Klove Sensory-Perceptual Examination ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Ancillary Test ==<br />
<br />
<br />
== Results ==<br />
<br />
== Works Cited==</div>BPEASE