Qing Empire

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Revision as of 16:08, 12 October 2008

大清國
Dà Qīngguó
Empire of the Great Qing

Flag of the Qing Empire
Anthem Gong Jin'ou
Official Language	Chinese
Capital	Beijing
Emperor	Pu Yi (era name: Xuantong)
Prime Minister of the Imperial Council	Xu Shichang
Establishment - Establishment of the Qing Empire	1616
Re-Establishment - German restoration of the Qing Empire	February, 2 1927
Government	Autocratic monarchy
Currency	Yuan
Area	circa 312,685 km²
Population	circa 65,700,900

The Empire of China, or officially Empire of the Great Qing (Pinyin: 大清國), or better known as Qing China (to distinguish it from the other factions in China) is a country in Far Eastern Asia. It is bordered to the north by Mongolia, the Fengtien Republic (under Japanese control), and the German enclave of Tangshan; to the east by the German enclave of Qingdao and the Yellow Sea; to the south by the Legation Cities and the Allgemeine Ostasiatische Gesellschaft; and to the west by the Shangqing Tianguo-controlled area and the Xibei San Ma warlords' demesne.

The Qing Dynasty of Manchurian origin ruled the Empire of China from 1644, date of the conquest of Chian proper by the Manchu Aisin-Goro clan, to 1911, year of the Republican Xinhai Revolution that deposed Emperor Pu Yi. The Qing era coincided for China with the highly representative reigns of Kangxi and Cixi, but also with an increased isolation of China and the rise of European colonialism, reaching his peak with the Boxer Rebellion. After the 1911 Revolution, the Chinese Republic soon collapsed into anarchy, where power was divided between numerous warlords, until the 1926 German intervention. On February, 2 1927 (beginning of the Fire Rabbit Year), the Qing Empire was restored under the present system: an autocratic monarchy of divine right, centered on the Emperor's person and his orders transmission through a small Imperial Council. Even though the Empire of China stands as the only official power in China, it's still the shadow of its former self: much of the economic and military powers are monopolized by the Allgemeine Ostasiatische Gesellschaft, and puritan revolts is spreading in Chinese campaigns.

History

After the proclamation of the Chinese Republic by Sun Yat-Sen in 1911 and the separation of numerous provinces throughout China, the Qing dynasty, installed in 1644 by the Manchu clan Aisin-Goro was removed a year later by the Imperial Edict of Empress Dowager Longyu bringing the abdication of the Child Emperor, Pu Yi, then six years old; he stayed as the former Emperor of China, installed in the Forbidden City at the expense of the Chinese Republic, before being expelled by one of the numerous warlords who shattered China during this era. The Chinese Republic stood despite anarchy and some anecdotal events as short-lived Empire of general Yuan Shikai (1916) and a twelve days-long recrowning of Pu Yi by warlord Zhang Xun (1917).

In the 20's, German Chancellor von Tirpitz, fearing that a Chinese Civil War would bring instability in Asia, decided of an intervention in China. In a few months, German colonial armies controlled Eastern China and divided the country in two zones : the south under administration of German companies, the north under a restored Qing Empire ruled by collaborationist native politicians. They reinstalled Pu Yi as Xuantong Huangdi (Emperor Xuantong), his 1908's crowning era name. The Qing Empire is now a shadow of its former self: it lost its dignity as an independent country, its economy is in the hands of the German trusts, and even its legitimacy is disputed, challenged by Zhang Tianran's Shangqing Tianguo and his puritan revolters.

Fall of the early Qing Empire

On the death of the Emperor Guangxu and his aunt Empress Dowager Cixi on November 1908, China was already about to collapse. The despotic and corrupted rule of Empress Dowager Cixi, beginning after the bloodbaths of the Opium Wars and the Taiping Rebellion, froze any chance of reforms and let the European powers and Japan dismembering with impunity the Middle Kingdom and intervening freely in its internal policy, as during the 1901 intervention against the Boxer Rebellion. After the death of the Emperor, his three-years-old nephew Pu Yi succeeded him, with the regency ensured by his father, Zaifeng, the 2nd Prince Chun. The regent tried to enhance reforms for a more modern constitutional monarchy, eventually removing the powerful general Yuan Shikai from all his positions. However, on October, 10 1911, a military uprising broke out in Wuchang, where an anti-Qing plot within army units had been unveiled: the revolt quickly began to spread throughout China. The republican leader, Sun Yat-Sen, quickly came back from exile to lead the revolution: on December, 29 1911, the provinces which had declared their independance from the Qing Empire elected Sun as the provisional President of the Republic of China, officially proclaiming the Republic on January, 1 1912. Meanwhile, Yuan Shikai, who had been recalled by the powerless regency to lead the army, agreed to recognize the Republic and forced the Empress Dowager Longyu to sign the abdication papers on behalf of the Emperor, Pu Yi.

Yuan Shikai's rule

Yuan Shikai as the Hongxian Emperor (1915-1916)

However, the Chinese republic quickly proved to be shaky. After the fall of the Qing empire, the country was effectively cut in two, between the North controlled by Yuan Shikai's armies, in Beijing, and the South, under Sun Yat-Sen, in Nanjing. To prevent civil war and possible foreign intervention from undermining the infant republic, Sun agreed to Yuan's demand that China be united under a Beijing government headed by Yuan. On March 10, in Beijing, Yuan Shikai was sworn in as the second Provisional President of the Republic of China. Yuan however revised the Consitution in a dictatorial sense, but the Kuomintang (Nationalist Party), an amalgamation of small political groups supportive of Sun, won various seats in the Assembly. Yuan, supported by monarchists and recognized internationally after making some concessions to the major power, wanted to take military action against the Kuomintang. In July 1913, seven southern provinces rebelled against Yuan, thus beginning the Second Revolution: the fight was however quickly won by Yuan's forces, eventually forcing Yuan and his supporters to exile. In November Yuan Shikai, legally president, ordered the Kuomintang dissolved and forcefully removed its members from parliament.In January 1914 Yuan formally suspended the parliament. In February, Yuan called into session a meeting to revise the Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China, which was announced in May of that year, expanding his powers. In December 1914, he further revised the law and lengthened the term of the President to ten years, with no term limit. Essentially Yuan was preparing for his ascendancy as the emperor. Opposition continued to grow against Yuan, who was gradually showing his vows of being made Emperor: even his former monarchist supporters aimed to topple him.

When the Weltkrieg broke out in 1914, Japan seized German holdings in Shandong Province. In 1915 the Japanese set before the government in Beijing the so-called Twenty-One Demands. The Demands aimed to install Japanese economic controls in railway and mining operations in Shandong, Manchuria, Fujian, and pressed to have Yuan Shikai appoint Japanese advisors in key positions in the Chinese government. The Twenty-One Demands would have made China a Japanese protectorate. Hopefully, it was made uneffectual by the subsequent anarchy in China and officially made null and void by the 1921 Peace with Honour. On 12 December 1915, Yuan declared himself emperor of a new Empire of China. This sent shockwaves throughout China, causing widespread rebellion in numerous provinces. On 25 December, some generals and governors formed the National Protection Army and declared Yunnan independent, encouraging other southern provinces to declare independence. Thus began the National Protection War. Yuan's generals, who were already wary of Yuan's imperial coronation, did not put up an aggressive campaign against the National Protection Army. On 22 March 1916, Yuan formally repudiated monarchy and stepped down as the first and last emperor of his dynasty. Yuan died on 6 June of that year. Yuan Shikai's imperial ambitions finally ended with the return of republican government.

Warlord era

After Yuan Shikai's death, Li Yuanhong became the President and Duan Qirui became the Premier. The Provisional Constitution was reinstated and the parliament convened. Duan Qirui, interested in joining the Allies in the Weltkrieg, was quickly dismissed from the government. Duan's dismissal caused provincial military governors loyal to Duan to declare independence and to call for Li Yuanhong to step down as the President. Li Yuanhong summoned Zhang Xun to mediate the situation. Zhang Xun had been a general serving the Qing Court and was by this time the military governor of Anhui province. He had his mind on restoring Puyi, who was still residing in the Forbidden City, to the imperial throne. Zhang was supplied with funds and weapons through the German legation who were eager to keep China neutral. On July 1, 1917, Zhang officially proclaimed that the Qing Dynasty has been restored and requested that Li Yuanhong give up his seat as the President, which Li promptly rejected. During the restoration affair, Duan Qirui led his army and defeated Zhang Xun's restoration forces in Beijing. On July 12 Zhang's forces disintegrated and Duan returned to Beijing. The Manchu restoration ended almost as soon as it began. During this period of confusion, Vice President Feng Guozhang, also a Beiyang general, assumed the post of Acting President of the republic and was sworn in in Nanjing. Duan Qirui resumed his post as the Premier. The Zhili Clique of Feng Guozhang and the Anhui Clique of Duan Qirui emerged as the most powerful cliques following the restoration affair. Duan Qirui's triumphant return to Beijing essentially made him the most powerful leader in China, but the lack of American support didn't allowed him to join the Allies, and China remained neutral.

Chinese flag from 1912 to 1927, representing the five major nationalities of China: Han, Manchu, Mongol, Hui and Tibetan

In September, Duan's complete disregard for the constitution caused Sun Yat-sen and the deposed parliament members to establish a new government in Guangzhou and the Constitutional Protection Army to counter Duan's abuse of power. Ironically, Sun Yat-sen's new government was a military one. Six southern provinces became part of Sun's Guangzhou military government and repelled Duan's attempt to destroy the Constitutional Protection Army. The Constitutional Protection War continued through 1918. Many in Sun Yat-sen's Guangzhou government felt Sun's position as the Generalissimo was too exclusionary and promoted a cabinet system to challenge Sun's ultimate authority. As a result, the Guangzhou government was reorganized to elect a seven-member cabinet system, known as the Governing Committee. Sun was once again sidelined by his political opponents and military strongmen. He left for Shanghai following the reorganization. Duan Qirui's Beijing government did not fare much better than Sun's. Some generals in Duan's Anhui Clique and others in the Zhili Clique did not want to use force to unify the southern provinces. They felt negotiation was the solution to unify China and forced Duan to resign in October. In addition, many were distressed by Duan's borrowing of huge sums of Japanese money to fund his army to fight internal enemies. President Feng Guozhang, with his term expiring, was then succeeded by Xu Shichang, who wanted to negotiate with the southern provinces. In February 1919, delegates from the northern and southern provinces convened in Shanghai to discuss postwar situations. However, the meeting broke down over Duan's borrowing of Japanese loans to fund the Anhui Clique army and further attempts at negotiation were hampered by the May Fourth Movement. The Constitutional Protection War essentially left China divided along the north-south border.

In 1918, the Beijing government signed a secret deal with Japan accepting the latter's claim to Shandong. When the Peace with Honour rejected the Japanese claim to Shandong and Beijing's sellout became public, internal reaction was shattering. On May 4, 1919, there were massive student demonstrations against the Beijing government and Japan. The political fervor, student activism, and iconoclastic and reformist intellectual currents set in motion by the patriotic student protest developed into a national awakening known as the May Fourth Movement. The May Fourth Movement helped to rekindle the then-fading cause of republican revolution. In 1917 Sun Yat-sen had become commander-in-chief of a rival military government in Guangzhou in collaboration with southern warlords. In October 1919, Sun reestablished the Kuomintang to counter the government in Beijing. The latter, under a succession of warlords, still maintained its facade of legitimacy and its relations with the West. By 1921, Sun had become president of the southern government. He spent his remaining years trying to consolidate his regime and achieve unity with the north. His efforts to obtain aid from the Western democracies were ignored, however, and in 1920 he turned to Germany, who had already won the Weltkrieg at this date.

The Zhili clique made an alliance with the Fengtien clique of Zhang Zuolin and defeated the Duan in July 1920. After the death of Feng Guozhang, the Zhili clique was led by Cao Kun. The alliance with the Fengtian was only of convenience and war broke out in 1922 with Zhili driving Fengtian forces back to Manchuria. Next, they wanted to bolster their legitimacy and reunify the country by bringing back Li Yuanhong to the presidency and restoring the National Assembly. They proposed that Xu Shichang and Sun Yat-Sen resign their rival presidencies simultaneously in favor of Li. When Sun issued strict stipulations that the Zhili couldn't stomach, they caused the defection of Kuomintang general Chen Jiongming by recognizing him as governor of Guangdong. With Sun driven out of Guangzhou, the Zhili clique superficially restored the constitutional government that existed prior to Zhang Xun's coup. Cao bought the presidency in 1923 despite opposition by the Kuomintang, Fengtian, Anhui remnants, some of his lieutenants, and the public. In the autumn of 1924, the Zhili appeared to be on the verge of complete victory until Feng Yuxiang betrayed the clique, seized Beijing, and imprisoned Cao. Zhili forces were routed from the north but they kept the center.

In 1922 the Kuomintang-warlord alliance in Guangzhou was ruptured, and Sun fled to Shanghai. By then, Sun saw the need to seek German support for his cause. In 1923, a joint statement by Sun and the German representative in Shanghai pledged German assistance for China's national unification. German advisers - such as Wilhelm Canaris - began to arrive in China in 1923 to aid in the reorganization and consolidation of the Kuomintang along the lines of the government in Berlin, who slightly begin to implement more realistic and even traditional valors within the then Republican movement. Sun Yat-sen died of cancer in Beijing in March 1925, as the Nationalist movement he had helped to initiate was gaining momentum. The Germans were successful in putting the former president Xu Shichang, who was beginning to retrieve monarchist inclinations, in command of the Kuomintang, eventually toppling the more pro-Syndicalist Chiang Kai-Shek.

The alliance between Zhang Zuolin and Feng Yuxiang was tenuous. Feng had formed his own faction called the Guominjun which was ideologically sympathetic to the southern Kuomintang government but not a part of it. As a compromise, they gave the northern government to Duan Qirui whose Anhui clique was near extinct. Fengtian was far stronger in terms of manpower as KMC troops were stretched thinly across a vast area. Negotiations in north-south reunification went nowhere since Zhang and Duan had little in common with Sun Yat-Sen who had died in March 1925. Later that year, fighting broke out after Fengtien general Guo Congling defected to the Guominjun. Zhili general Wu Peifu decided to ally with Zhang against the traitor Feng.

Restoration

Politics

The Chinese Imperial Council

Emperor: Xuantong Emperor (born 7 February 1906)

Prime Minister: Xu Shichang (born 20 October 1855)

Minister of Foreign Affairs: Wang Zuanxu (born 2 June 1885)

Minister of War and Commander-in-Chief of the Chinese Imperial Air Service: Fu Zuoyi (born 2 June 1895)

Minister of Security: Qu Yangke

Minister of Special Intelligence: Shang Zhen (born 1887)

Commander-in-Chief of the Chinese Imperial Army: Wu Peifu (born 22 April 1874)

Commander-in-Chief of the Chinese Imperial Navy: Otto Ciliax (born 30 October 1891)

Military

Culture